Parental warmth and children’s prosocial behavior: The role of group orientation

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doi:10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.0614

HAN Xianguo, JIN Guomin, LI Dan, LIU Shihong, WU Qin, LIU Junsheng, CHEN Xinyin. (2025). Parental warmth and children’s prosocial behavior: The role of group orientation. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 57(4), 614-651.

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URL: https://journal.psych.ac.cn/acps/EN/10.3724/SP.J.1041.2025.0614

https://journal.psych.ac.cn/acps/EN/Y2025/V57/I4/614

Table 1 Means, standard deviations, and correlations among study variables

Variables	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15
1 Sex (0 = boy, 1 = girl)	—
2 Maternal educational level	?0.04	—
3 Paternal educational level	?0.04	0.53^***	—
4 Maternal warmth T1	0.10^**	0.05	0.03	—
5 Maternal warmth T2	?0.01	0.08^*	0.02	0.46^***	—
6 Maternal warmth T3	?0.05	0.09^**	0.07	0.35^***	0.48^***	—
7 Paternal warmth T1	0.10^**	0.07^*	0.04	0.50^***	0.30^***	0.24^***	—
8 Paternal warmth T2	0.09^**	0.06	0.04	0.26^***	0.56^***	0.30^***	0.41^***	—
9 Paternal warmth T3	?0.04	0.03	0.06	0.24^***	0.34^***	0.60^***	0.36^***	0.45^***	—
10 Group orientation T1	0.05	0.04	0.08^*	0.37^***	0.20^***	0.13^***	0.32^***	0.17^***	0.14^***	—
11 Group orientation T2	0.09^**	0.04	0.04	0.32^***	0.33^***	0.21^***	0.22^***	0.34^***	0.18^***	0.35^***	—
12 Group orientation T3	?0.01	0.01	?0.01	0.21^***	0.25^***	0.35^***	0.17^***	0.29^***	0.39^***	0.31^***	0.47^***	—
13 Prosocial behavior T1	0.28^***	0.05	0.00	0.13^***	0.04	0.06	0.15^***	0.10^**	0.07	0.16^***	0.15^***	0.11^***	—
14 Prosocial behavior T2	0.26^***	0.06	0.04	0.11^**	0.04	0.06	0.08^*	0.03	0.08^*	0.13^***	0.11^***	0.12^***	0.22^***	—
15 Prosocial behavior T3	0.25^***	0.02	0.04	0.09^*	0.05	0.07^*	0.06	0.06	0.02	0.10^**	0.10^**	0.12^**	0.26^***	0.20^***	—
M	0.49	3.55	3.93	3.64	3.68	3.69	3.52	3.54	3.60	3.55	3.62	3.71	0.00	0.00	?0.02
SD	0.50	1.06	0.95	0.98	1.00	1.00	1.06	1.08	1.01	0.72	0.74	0.70	0.99	0.99	0.98

Table 1 Means, standard deviations, and correlations among study variables

Variables	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15
1 Sex (0 = boy, 1 = girl)	—
2 Maternal educational level	?0.04	—
3 Paternal educational level	?0.04	0.53^***	—
4 Maternal warmth T1	0.10^**	0.05	0.03	—
5 Maternal warmth T2	?0.01	0.08^*	0.02	0.46^***	—
6 Maternal warmth T3	?0.05	0.09^**	0.07	0.35^***	0.48^***	—
7 Paternal warmth T1	0.10^**	0.07^*	0.04	0.50^***	0.30^***	0.24^***	—
8 Paternal warmth T2	0.09^**	0.06	0.04	0.26^***	0.56^***	0.30^***	0.41^***	—
9 Paternal warmth T3	?0.04	0.03	0.06	0.24^***	0.34^***	0.60^***	0.36^***	0.45^***	—
10 Group orientation T1	0.05	0.04	0.08^*	0.37^***	0.20^***	0.13^***	0.32^***	0.17^***	0.14^***	—
11 Group orientation T2	0.09^**	0.04	0.04	0.32^***	0.33^***	0.21^***	0.22^***	0.34^***	0.18^***	0.35^***	—
12 Group orientation T3	?0.01	0.01	?0.01	0.21^***	0.25^***	0.35^***	0.17^***	0.29^***	0.39^***	0.31^***	0.47^***	—
13 Prosocial behavior T1	0.28^***	0.05	0.00	0.13^***	0.04	0.06	0.15^***	0.10^**	0.07	0.16^***	0.15^***	0.11^***	—
14 Prosocial behavior T2	0.26^***	0.06	0.04	0.11^**	0.04	0.06	0.08^*	0.03	0.08^*	0.13^***	0.11^***	0.12^***	0.22^***	—
15 Prosocial behavior T3	0.25^***	0.02	0.04	0.09^*	0.05	0.07^*	0.06	0.06	0.02	0.10^**	0.10^**	0.12^**	0.26^***	0.20^***	—
M	0.49	3.55	3.93	3.64	3.68	3.69	3.52	3.54	3.60	3.55	3.62	3.71	0.00	0.00	?0.02
SD	0.50	1.06	0.95	0.98	1.00	1.00	1.06	1.08	1.01	0.72	0.74	0.70	0.99	0.99	0.98

Table 2 Parameter estimates for the cross-lagged panel model of maternal warmth and prosocial behavior

Paths	T1→T2			T2→T3
Paths	β	SE	p	β	SE	p
Autoregressive paths
Maternal warmth	0.52	0.03	< 0.001	0.55	0.03	< 0.001
Prosocial behavior	0.20	0.04	< 0.001	0.19	0.03	< 0.001
Cross-lagged paths
Maternal warmth→Prosocial behavior	0.07	0.03	0.012	0.07	0.03	0.012
Prosocial behavior→Maternal warmth	?0.02	0.03	0.560	?0.02	0.03	0.559
Within-wave correlations
Maternal warmth T1? Prosocial behavior T1	0.15	0.04	< 0.001
Maternal warmth T2? Prosocial behavior T2	?0.01	0.04	0.818
Maternal warmth T3? Prosocial behavior T3	0.06	0.04	0.134

Table 2 Parameter estimates for the cross-lagged panel model of maternal warmth and prosocial behavior

Paths	T1→T2			T2→T3
Paths	β	SE	p	β	SE	p
Autoregressive paths
Maternal warmth	0.52	0.03	< 0.001	0.55	0.03	< 0.001
Prosocial behavior	0.20	0.04	< 0.001	0.19	0.03	< 0.001
Cross-lagged paths
Maternal warmth→Prosocial behavior	0.07	0.03	0.012	0.07	0.03	0.012
Prosocial behavior→Maternal warmth	?0.02	0.03	0.560	?0.02	0.03	0.559
Within-wave correlations
Maternal warmth T1? Prosocial behavior T1	0.15	0.04	< 0.001
Maternal warmth T2? Prosocial behavior T2	?0.01	0.04	0.818
Maternal warmth T3? Prosocial behavior T3	0.06	0.04	0.134

Table 3 Parameter estimates for the cross-lagged panel model of paternal warmth and prosocial behavior

Paths	T1→T2			T2→T3
Paths	β	SE	p	β	SE	p
Autoregressive paths
Paternal warmth	0.49	0.03	< 0.001	0.52	0.03	< 0.001
Prosocial behavior	0.21	0.04	< 0.001	0.19	0.03	< 0.001
Cross-lagged paths
Paternal warmth→Prosocial behavior	0.04	0.03	0.141	0.04	0.03	0.144
Prosocial behavior→Paternal warmth	0.05	0.02	0.036	0.05	0.03	0.039
Within-wave correlations
Paternal warmth T1? Prosocial behavior T1	0.15	0.04	< 0.001
Paternal warmth T2? Prosocial behavior T2	?0.01	0.05	0.762
Paternal warmth T3? Prosocial behavior T3	?0.03	0.04	0.516

Table 3 Parameter estimates for the cross-lagged panel model of paternal warmth and prosocial behavior

Paths	T1→T2			T2→T3
Paths	β	SE	p	β	SE	p
Autoregressive paths
Paternal warmth	0.49	0.03	< 0.001	0.52	0.03	< 0.001
Prosocial behavior	0.21	0.04	< 0.001	0.19	0.03	< 0.001
Cross-lagged paths
Paternal warmth→Prosocial behavior	0.04	0.03	0.141	0.04	0.03	0.144
Prosocial behavior→Paternal warmth	0.05	0.02	0.036	0.05	0.03	0.039
Within-wave correlations
Paternal warmth T1? Prosocial behavior T1	0.15	0.04	< 0.001
Paternal warmth T2? Prosocial behavior T2	?0.01	0.05	0.762
Paternal warmth T3? Prosocial behavior T3	?0.03	0.04	0.516

Table 4 Parameter estimates for the cross-lagged panel model of maternal warmth, group oriention, and prosocial behavior

Parhs	T1→T2			T2→T3
Parhs	β	SE	p	β	SE	p
Autoregressive paths
Maternal warmth	0.50	0.04	< 0.001	0.53	0.04	< 0.001
Group orientation	0.39	0.03	< 0.001	0.45	0.04	< 0.001
Prosocial behavior	0.19	0.04	< 0.001	0.18	0.04	< 0.001
Cross-lagged paths
Maternal warmth→Group orientation	0.14	0.03	< 0.001	0.16	0.03	< 0.001
Maternal warmth→Prosocial behavior	0.04	0.03	0.201	0.04	0.03	0.202
Group orientation→Maternal warmth	0.04	0.03	0.189	0.04	0.03	0.192
Group orientation→Prosocial behavior	0.08	0.03	0.018	0.08	0.03	0.017
Prosocial behavior→Maternal warmth	?0.02	0.03	0.451	?0.02	0.03	0.450
Prosocial behavior→Group orientation	0.08	0.03	0.003	0.09	0.03	0.003
Within-wave correlations
Maternal warmth T1? Group orientation T1	0.47	0.04	< 0.001
Maternal warmth T1? Prosocial behavior T1	0.15	0.04	< 0.001
Group orientation T1? Prosocial behavior T1	0.18	0.05	< 0.001
Maternal warmth T2? Group orientation T2	0.26	0.05	< 0.001
Maternal warmth T2? Prosocial behavior T2	?0.02	0.04	0.692
Group orientation T2? Prosocial behavior T2	0.05	0.04	0.235
Maternal warmth T3? Group orientation T3	0.34	0.05	< 0.001
Maternal warmth T3? Prosocial behavior T3	0.06	0.04	0.146
Group orientation T3? Prosocial behavior T3	0.08	0.04	0.054

Table 4 Parameter estimates for the cross-lagged panel model of maternal warmth, group oriention, and prosocial behavior

Parhs	T1→T2			T2→T3
Parhs	β	SE	p	β	SE	p
Autoregressive paths
Maternal warmth	0.50	0.04	< 0.001	0.53	0.04	< 0.001
Group orientation	0.39	0.03	< 0.001	0.45	0.04	< 0.001
Prosocial behavior	0.19	0.04	< 0.001	0.18	0.04	< 0.001
Cross-lagged paths
Maternal warmth→Group orientation	0.14	0.03	< 0.001	0.16	0.03	< 0.001
Maternal warmth→Prosocial behavior	0.04	0.03	0.201	0.04	0.03	0.202
Group orientation→Maternal warmth	0.04	0.03	0.189	0.04	0.03	0.192
Group orientation→Prosocial behavior	0.08	0.03	0.018	0.08	0.03	0.017
Prosocial behavior→Maternal warmth	?0.02	0.03	0.451	?0.02	0.03	0.450
Prosocial behavior→Group orientation	0.08	0.03	0.003	0.09	0.03	0.003
Within-wave correlations
Maternal warmth T1? Group orientation T1	0.47	0.04	< 0.001
Maternal warmth T1? Prosocial behavior T1	0.15	0.04	< 0.001
Group orientation T1? Prosocial behavior T1	0.18	0.05	< 0.001
Maternal warmth T2? Group orientation T2	0.26	0.05	< 0.001
Maternal warmth T2? Prosocial behavior T2	?0.02	0.04	0.692
Group orientation T2? Prosocial behavior T2	0.05	0.04	0.235
Maternal warmth T3? Group orientation T3	0.34	0.05	< 0.001
Maternal warmth T3? Prosocial behavior T3	0.06	0.04	0.146
Group orientation T3? Prosocial behavior T3	0.08	0.04	0.054

Table 5 Parameter estimates for the cross-lagged panel model of paternal warmth, group oriention, and prosocial behavior

Parhs	T1→T2			T2→T3
Parhs	β	SE	p	β	SE	p
Autoregressive paths
Paternal warmth	0.49	0.03	< 0.001	0.52	0.04	< 0.001
Group orientation	0.40	0.03	< 0.001	0.46	0.04	< 0.001
Prosocial behavior	0.19	0.04	< 0.001	0.18	0.03	< 0.001
Cross-lagged paths
Paternal warmth→Group orientation	0.13	0.03	< 0.001	0.14	0.03	< 0.001
Paternal warmth→Prosocial behavior	0.00	0.03	0.884	0.00	0.03	0.884
Group orientation→Paternal warmth	0.01	0.03	0.771	0.01	0.03	0.771
Group orientation→Prosocial behavior	0.09	0.03	0.005	0.09	0.03	0.005
Prosocial behavior→Paternal warmth	0.05	0.03	0.039	0.05	0.03	0.042
Prosocial behavior→Group orientation	0.08	0.03	0.002	0.09	0.03	0.002
Within-wave correlations
Paternal warmth T1? Group orientation T1	0.41	0.04	< 0.001
Paternal warmth T1? Prosocial behavior T1	0.15	0.04	< 0.001
Group orientation T1? Prosocial behavior T1	0.19	0.05	< 0.001
Paternal warmth T2? Group orientation T2	0.32	0.04	< 0.001
Paternal warmth T2? Prosocial behavior T2	?0.02	0.05	0.732
Group orientation T2? Prosocial behavior T2	0.06	0.04	0.153
Paternal warmth T3? Group orientation T3	0.37	0.05	< 0.001
Paternal warmth T3? Prosocial behavior T3	?0.03	0.04	0.548
Group orientation T3? Prosocial behavior T3	0.08	0.04	0.057

Table 5 Parameter estimates for the cross-lagged panel model of paternal warmth, group oriention, and prosocial behavior

Parhs	T1→T2			T2→T3
Parhs	β	SE	p	β	SE	p
Autoregressive paths
Paternal warmth	0.49	0.03	< 0.001	0.52	0.04	< 0.001
Group orientation	0.40	0.03	< 0.001	0.46	0.04	< 0.001
Prosocial behavior	0.19	0.04	< 0.001	0.18	0.03	< 0.001
Cross-lagged paths
Paternal warmth→Group orientation	0.13	0.03	< 0.001	0.14	0.03	< 0.001
Paternal warmth→Prosocial behavior	0.00	0.03	0.884	0.00	0.03	0.884
Group orientation→Paternal warmth	0.01	0.03	0.771	0.01	0.03	0.771
Group orientation→Prosocial behavior	0.09	0.03	0.005	0.09	0.03	0.005
Prosocial behavior→Paternal warmth	0.05	0.03	0.039	0.05	0.03	0.042
Prosocial behavior→Group orientation	0.08	0.03	0.002	0.09	0.03	0.002
Within-wave correlations
Paternal warmth T1? Group orientation T1	0.41	0.04	< 0.001
Paternal warmth T1? Prosocial behavior T1	0.15	0.04	< 0.001
Group orientation T1? Prosocial behavior T1	0.19	0.05	< 0.001
Paternal warmth T2? Group orientation T2	0.32	0.04	< 0.001
Paternal warmth T2? Prosocial behavior T2	?0.02	0.05	0.732
Group orientation T2? Prosocial behavior T2	0.06	0.04	0.153
Paternal warmth T3? Group orientation T3	0.37	0.05	< 0.001
Paternal warmth T3? Prosocial behavior T3	?0.03	0.04	0.548
Group orientation T3? Prosocial behavior T3	0.08	0.04	0.057

Table 6 Multigroup analyses for comparing gender differences in the cross-lagged paths

Models	χ2 (df)	CFI	TLI	RMSEA	Comparion	Δχ²_SB(Δdf)	p	ΔCFI	ΔRMSEA
Cross-lagged panel model of maternal warmth and prosocial behavior
M1.1: Freely estimated	996.754 (760)	0.970	0.968	0.025
M1.2: Constrained the cross-lagged paths to be equal across boys and girls	1002.269 (762)	0.970	0.968	0.025	M1.2-M1.1	5.624 (2)	0.060	0.000	0.000
Cross-lagged panel model of parternal warmth and prosocial behavior
M2.1: Freely estimated	1027.748 (762)	0.968	0.966	0.026
M2.2: Constrained the cross-lagged paths to be equal across boys and girls	1028.785 (764)	0.968	0.966	0.026	M2.2-M2.1	0.905 (2)	0.636	0.000	0.000
Cross-lagged panel model of maternal warmth, group oriention, and prosocial behavior
M3.1: Freely estimated	4465.092 (3315)	0.921	0.919	0.026
M3.2: Constrained the cross-lagged paths to be equal across boys and girls	4483.641 (3321)	0.921	0.918	0.026	M3.2-M3.1	18.026 (6)	0.006	0.000	0.000
Cross-lagged panel model of paternal warmth, group oriention, and prosocial behavior
M4.1: Freely estimated	4552.834 (3317)	0.917	0.914	0.027
M4.2: Constrained the cross-lagged paths to be equal across boys and girls	4557.380 (3323)	0.917	0.914	0.027	M4.2-M4.1	4.546 (6)	0.603	0.000	0.000

Table 6 Multigroup analyses for comparing gender differences in the cross-lagged paths

Models	χ2 (df)	CFI	TLI	RMSEA	Comparion	Δχ²_SB(Δdf)	p	ΔCFI	ΔRMSEA
Cross-lagged panel model of maternal warmth and prosocial behavior
M1.1: Freely estimated	996.754 (760)	0.970	0.968	0.025
M1.2: Constrained the cross-lagged paths to be equal across boys and girls	1002.269 (762)	0.970	0.968	0.025	M1.2-M1.1	5.624 (2)	0.060	0.000	0.000
Cross-lagged panel model of parternal warmth and prosocial behavior
M2.1: Freely estimated	1027.748 (762)	0.968	0.966	0.026
M2.2: Constrained the cross-lagged paths to be equal across boys and girls	1028.785 (764)	0.968	0.966	0.026	M2.2-M2.1	0.905 (2)	0.636	0.000	0.000
Cross-lagged panel model of maternal warmth, group oriention, and prosocial behavior
M3.1: Freely estimated	4465.092 (3315)	0.921	0.919	0.026
M3.2: Constrained the cross-lagged paths to be equal across boys and girls	4483.641 (3321)	0.921	0.918	0.026	M3.2-M3.1	18.026 (6)	0.006	0.000	0.000
Cross-lagged panel model of paternal warmth, group oriention, and prosocial behavior
M4.1: Freely estimated	4552.834 (3317)	0.917	0.914	0.027
M4.2: Constrained the cross-lagged paths to be equal across boys and girls	4557.380 (3323)	0.917	0.914	0.027	M4.2-M4.1	4.546 (6)	0.603	0.000	0.000

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