Reciprocal relations between relative deprivation and psychological adjustment among single-parent children in China: A longitudinal study

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1041.2021.00067

Abstract

Abstract:

Increasing divorce rates in China have led to greater numbers of children growing up in single-parent homes. Previous studies have indicated that such single-parent children reported greater senses of relative deprivation and more psychological adjustment problems than their counterparts in undivided families. However, few studies have yet examined associations between relative deprivation and psychological adjustment and their directions. We thus explored characteristics of relative deprivation, psychological adjustment, and associations among them over 1.5 years beginning March, 2017. A sample of 273 single-parent children (50.5% boys) was recruited from two primary schools and two junior high schools in Hubei, China. Attrition was relatively minor; namely, 93.4% of participants completed all surveys during three assessment waves.

Participants provided self-report data on individual and group cognitive and individual and group affective relative deprivation, and depression, loneliness, social anxiety, and self-esteem, as well as demographic variables (i.e., gender, academic period, and family economic status). All the measures had good reliability and validity. Results indicated that the relative deprivation of single-parent children was not obvious, and psychological adjustment was generally good. Boys reported higher levels of depression and loneliness than girls. Moreover, single-parent children with poor family economic status reported higher levels of relative deprivation, depression, and loneliness, as well as lower levels of self-esteem than their counterparts.

To explore the possible reciprocal relations between relative deprivation and psychological adjustment, as well as to separate between-person effects from within-person effects, we analyzed data by using the random intercepts cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM). Results showed that there were reciprocal relations between relative deprivation and psychological adjustment at the within-person level when controlling for between-person effects and key demographic variables. Specifically, initial relative deprivation significantly negatively predicted psychological adjustment at Time 2, which in turn negatively predicted relative deprivation at Time 3. Moreover, relative deprivation at Time 2 also negatively predicted psychological adjustment at Time 3. These reciprocal relations between relative deprivation and psychological adjustment did not differ by gender and academic period (i.e., primary or secondary school). However, the association between psychological adjustment and relative deprivation was stronger for single-parent children with poor family economic status than for those with good family economic status.

These observations expand the understanding of the complex relations between relative deprivation and psychological adjustment among single-parent children in China. Additionally, they have important implications for intervention and improvement of mental health for vulnerable groups, especially single-parent children. For instance, programs that aim to improve the mental health of single-parent children and to reduce the levels of relative deprivation among this vulnerable group may be helpful in breaking the detrimental cycle between relative deprivation and psychological adjustment.

Key words: single-parent children, relative deprivation, psychological adjustment, longitudinal study

XIONG Meng, LIU Ruojin, YE Yiduo. (2021). Reciprocal relations between relative deprivation and psychological adjustment among single-parent children in China: A longitudinal study. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 53(1), 67-80.

Figures/Tables 5

References 66

[1]	Asher, S. R., Hymel, S., & Renshaw, P. D. (1984). Loneliness in children. Child Development, 55(4), 1456-1464. doi: 10.2307/1130015 URL
[2]	Barajas, M. S. (2011). Academic achievement of children in single parent homes: A critical review. The Hilltop Review, 5(1), 13-21.
[3]	Barrera, M.(1988). Models of social support and life stress: Beyond the buffering hypothesis. In L. H. Cohen (Ed.), Life events and psychological functioning: Theoretical and methodological issues (211-236. Sage).
[4]	Berry, D., & Willoughby, M. T. (2017). On the practical interpretability of cross-lagged panel models: Rethinking a developmental workhorse. Child Development, 88(4), 1186-1206. doi: 10.1111/cdev.12660 URL pmid: 27878996
[5]	Beshai, S., Mishra, S., Meadows, T. J. S., Parmar, P., & Huang, V. (2017). Minding the gap: Subjective relative deprivation and depressive symptoms. Social Science & Medicine, 173, 18-25. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.11.021 URL pmid: 27914314
[6]	Brody, G. H., Murry, V. M., Kim, S., & Brown, A. C. (2002). Longitudinal pathways to competence and psychological adjustment among African American children living in rural single-parent households. Child Development, 73(5), 1505-1516. doi: 10.1111/1467-8624.00486 URL pmid: 12361315
[7]	Callan, M. J., Kim, H., Gheorghiu, A. I., & Matthews, W. J. (2017). The interrelations between social class, personal relative deprivation, and prosociality. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 8(6), 660-669. doi: 10.1177/1948550616673877 URL pmid: 29081900
[8]	Callan, M. J., Kim, H., & Matthews, W. J. (2015). Predicting self-rated mental and physical health: The contributions of subjective socioeconomic status and personal relative deprivation. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 14-15. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00014 URL pmid: 21607071
[9]	Chen, Z. Y., Yang, X. D., & Li, X. Y. (2009). Psychometric features of CES-D in Chinese adolescents. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 17(4), 443-445.
[10]	Cheng, C., Lau, H. P., & Chan, M. P. S. (2014). Coping flexibility and psychological adjustment to stressful life changes: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 140(6), 1582-1607. doi: 10.1037/a0037913 URL pmid: 25222637
[11]	Chinawa, J. M., Obu, H. A., Manyike, P. C., Obi, I. E., Isreal, O. O., & Chinawa, A. T. (2014). Self esteem among adolescents in Nigerian secondary schools: A neglected issue. Journal of Advances in Medicine and Medical Research, 5(1), 98-106.
[12]	Cojocaru, A..(2016). Does relative deprivation matter in developing countries: Evidence from six transition economies. Social Indicators Research, 125(3), 735-756.
[13]	Cummings, E. M., Davies, P. T., & Campbell, S. B.(2000) New directions in the study of parenting and child development.In E. M. Cummings, P. T. Davies, & S. B. Campbell (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology and family process: Theory, research, and clinical implications .
[14]	Ding, Y, Z. (2016). Let residents have a sense of gain must get through the last kilometer: The practical path of community governance innovation in the new era. National Governance, 1(2), 17-23.
[15]	Eibner, C., Sturm, R., & Gresenz, C. R. (2004). Does relative deprivation predict the need for mental health services? The Journal of Mental Health Policy and Economic, 7(4), 167-175.
[16]	Feng, X.H., & Zhang, X. K. (2008). Researches about the relationships among pride, explicit self-esteem and depression in urban poverty adolescents. Psychological Development and Education, (4), 100-105.
[17]	Gunnarsdóttir, H., Hensing, G., Povlsen, L., & Petzold, M. (2016). Relative deprivation in the Nordic countries-child mental health problems in relation to parental financial stress. European Journal of Public Health, 26(2), 277-282. doi: 10.1093/eurpub/ckv191 URL pmid: 26490511
[18]	Guo, H. Y., Chen, L. H., Ye, Z., Pan, J., & Lin, D. H. (2017). Characteristics of peer victimization and the bidirectional relationship betweenpeer victimization and internalizing problems among rural-to-urban migrant children in China: A longitudinal study. Acta PsychologicaSinica, 49(3), 336-348.
[19]	Hai, Y. (2017). Survey on social adaptability of middle school students in divorced families and educational strategies. Theory and Practice of Education, 37(5), 17-19.
[20]	Haimi, M., & Lerner., A. (2016). The impact of parental separation and divorce on the health status of children, and the ways to improve it. Journal of Clinical & Medical Genomics, 4(1), 137-143. doi: 10.1186/s12920-020-00792-z URL pmid: 32948205
[21]	Hamaker, E. L., Kuipers, R. M., & Grasman, R. P. (2015). A critique of the cross-lagged panel model. Psychological Methods, 20(1), 102-116. doi: 10.1037/a0038889 URL pmid: 25822208
[22]	Han, L., Ren, Y. Q., Xue, W. W., & Gao, F. Q. (2017). Self-esteem and aggression: The multiple mediating effects of relative deprivation and perceived social support. Chinese Journal of Special Education,(2), 84-89.
[23]	Hetherington, M. E., Margaret, B., & Glendessa, M. I. (1998). What matters? What does not? Five perspectives on the association between marital transitions and children’s adjustment. American Psychologist, 53(2), 167-184. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.53.2.167 URL
[24]	Hou, X. F., Mao, F. Q., Liang, R. H., Feng, X. J., Liu, X., Liu, H. W., & Liu, P. P. (2011). Survey and related analysis of parent-child mental health status in four types of single-parent families. Chinese Journal of School Health, 32(6), 641-645.
[25]	Jia, X. B. (2001). The nature and mechanism of mental adaptation. Journal of Tianjin Normal University (Social Science), (1), 19-23.
[26]	Ladd, G. W., & Troop-Gordon, W. (2003). The role of chronic peer difficulties in the developmentof children’s psychological adjustment problems. Child Development, 74(5), 1344-1367. doi: 10.1111/1467-8624.00611 URL pmid: 14552402
[27]	La Greca, A. M., Dandes, S. K., Wick, P., Shaw, K., & Stone, W. L. (1988). Development of the social anxiety scale forchildren: Reliability and concurrent validity. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 17(1), 84-91.
[28]	Lerner, R.M. (2006). Developmental science, developmental systems, and contemporary theories of human development. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Editors-in-chief) and R. M. Lerner (vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1: Theoretical models of human development (6th ed., pp.1-17, 43-61, 542-548). Wiley.
[29]	Lerner, R.M., & Miller, J. R. (1993). Integrating human development research and intervention for America's children: The Michigan State University model. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 14(3), 347-364. doi: 10.1016/0193-3973(93)90014-M URL
[30]	Li, Y.D. (2015). Research on the causes and countermeasures of the crime of juveniles from single parent families(Unpublished master dissertation). Southwest University of Political Science & Law, Chongqing, China.
[31]	Little, T. D., Cunningham, W. A., Shahar, G., & Widaman, K. F. (2002). To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 9(2), 151-173. doi: 10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_1 URL
[32]	Liu, J. S., Zhou, Y., Li, D., & Chen, X. Y. (2015). Relations between preference for solitude and psychological adjustment in middle childhood and early adolescence: A moderated mediating model. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 47(8), 1004-1012. doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2015.01004 URL
[33]	Liu, P.(2007). Children loneliness scale. In X. D. Wang, X. L. Wang, & H. Ma (Eds.). Handbook of rating scale for mental health (Revised edition, pp. 303-305).Chinese Mental Health Journal Press.
[34]	Luthans, F., Avolio, B. J., Avey, J. B., & Norman, S. M. (2007). Positive psychological capital: Measurement and relationship with performance and satisfaction. Personnel Psychology, 60(3), 541-572. doi: 10.1111/peps.2007.60.issue-3 URL
[35]	Ma, H.(1999). Social anxiety scale for children. In X. D. Wang, X. L. Wang, & H. Ma (Eds.), Handbook of rating scale for mental health (Revised edition, pp. 248-249).Chinese Mental Health Journal Press.
[36]	Masselink, M., van Roekel, E., Hankin, B. L., Keijsers, L., Lodder, G. M. A., Vanhalst, J., … Oldehinkel, A. J. (2018). The longitudinal association between self-esteem and depressive symptoms in adolescents:Separating between-person effects fromwithin-personeffects. European Journal of Personality, 32(6), 653-671. doi: 10.1002/per.2179 URL pmid: 31105382
[37]	Ministry of Civil Affairs of the People's Republic of China. (2018). Statistical bulletin on the development of civil affairs in 2017. Retrieved 2018-08-02, from http://www.mca.gov.cn/article/sj/tjgb/2017/ 201708021607.pdf
[38]	Mishra, S,. & Carleton, R. N. (2015). Subjective relative deprivation is associated with poorer physical and mental health. Social Science & Medicine, 147, 144-149. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.09.024 URL pmid: 19837499
[39]	Moreira, J. F. G, & Telzer, E. H. (2015). Changes in family cohesion and links to depression duringthe college transition. Journal of Adolescence, 43, 72-82. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.05.012 URL pmid: 26058003
[40]	Mummendey, A., Kessler, T., Klink, A., & Mielke, R. (1999). Strategies to cope with negative social identity: Predictions by social identity theory and relative deprivation theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(2), 229-245. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.50.2.229 URL pmid: 3701576
[41]	Perales, F., Johnson, S. E., Baxter, J., Lawrence, D., & Zubrick, S. R. (2017). Family structure and childhood mental disorders: New findings from Australia. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 52, 423-433. doi: 10.1007/s001270170019 URL pmid: 11766973
[42]	Pettigrew, T. F. (2015). Samuel Stouffer and relative deprivation. Social Psychology Quarterly, 78(1), 7-24.
[43]	Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385-401. doi: 10.1177/014662167700100306 URL
[44]	Rosenberg, M. (1965). Self-esteem scale. In X. D. Wang, X. L. Wang, & H. Ma (Eds.), Handbook of rating scale for mental health , (Revised edition, pp. 318-401). Chinese Mental Health Journal Press.
[45]	Saito, M., Kondo, K., Kondo, N., Abe, A., Ojima, T., & Suzuki, K. (2014). Relative deprivation, poverty, and subjective health: JAGES cross-sectional study. PLoS ONE, 9(10):e111169. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0111169 URL pmid: 25350284
[46]	Schmitt, M., Maes, J., & Widaman, K. (2010). Longitudinal effects of egoistic and fraternal relative deprivation on well-being and protest. International Journal of Psychology, 45(2), 122-130. doi: 10.1080/00207590903165067 URL pmid: 22043892
[47]	Shen, L. (2012). Children from poor one-parent-families' school adaptation and intervention of social work. Social Work, (12), 37-39.
[48]	Smith, H. J,. & Huo, Y. J. (2014). Relative deprivation: How subjective experiences of inequality influence social behavior and health. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1(1), 231-238.
[49]	Smith, H. J,. & Pettigrew, T. F. (2015). Advances in relative deprivation theory and research. Social Justice Research, 28(1), 1-6. doi: 10.1007/s11211-014-0231-5 URL
[50]	Smith, H. J., Pettigrew, T. F., Pippin, G. M., & Bialosiewicz, S. (2012). Relative deprivation: A theoretical and meta-analytic review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 16(3), 203-232. doi: 10.1177/1088868311430825 URL
[51]	Sorell, G. T., SoRelle-Miner, D. A., & Pausé, C. J. (2007). Moving on: The challenges of dynamic systems perspectives. Human Development, 50, 160-164. doi: 10.1159/000100945 URL
[52]	Starr, C. R,. & Zurbriggen, E. L. (2017). Sandra Bem's gender schema theory after 34 years: A reviewof its reach and impact. Sex Roles, 76(9-10), 566-578.
[53]	Sun, D. Y,. & Guo, Y. Y. (2016). Relative deprivation: Wanting, deserving, resentment for not having. Journal of Psychological Science, 39(3), 714-719.
[54]	Taylor, S. E., Lerner, J. S., Sherman, D. K., Sage, R. M., & Mcdowell, N. K. (2003). Portrait of the self-enhancer: Well adjusted and well liked or maladjusted and friendless? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(1), 165-176. URL pmid: 12518977
[55]	Tebeka, S., Hoertel, N., Dubertret, C., & Strat, Y. L. (2016). Parental divorce or death during childhood and adolescence and its association with mental health. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 204(9), 678-685. doi: 10.1097/NMD.0b013e318183f85c URL pmid: 18791429
[56]	Tian, L. M. (2006). Shortcoming and merits of Chinese version of Rosenberg (1965) self-esteem scale. Psychological Exploration, 26(2), 88-91.
[57]	Weaver, J. M,. & Schofield, T. J. (2015). Mediation and moderation of divorce effects on children’s behavior problems. Journal of Family Psychology, 29(1), 39-48. URL pmid: 17371108
[58]	Wu, Y. X., Wang, P., & Du, S. J. (2018). The changing Chinese family structure and adolescent development. Social Sciences in China, (2), 98-120.
[59]	Xiong, M. (2015). Relative deprivation of migrant children: Characteristics, influencing factors and mechanisms(Unpublished doctoral dissertation) . Fujian Normal University Fuzhou.
[60]	Xiong, M., Ma, J. P., & Ye, Y. D. (2020). Effects of relative deprivation on divorced children’s depression: A moderated mediating model. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 28(3), 523-527.
[61]	Xiong, M,. & Ye, Y. D. (2016). The concept, measurement, influencing factors and effects of relative deprivation. Advances in Psychological Science, 24(3), 438-453. doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2016.00438 URL
[62]	Zhang, J,. & Tao, M. K. (2013). Relative deprivation and psychopathology of Chinese college students. Journal of Affective Disorders, 150(3), 903-907. URL pmid: 23714373
[63]	Zhang, S. W., Wang, E. P., & Chen, Y. W. (2011). Relative deprivation based on occupation: An effective predictor of Chinese life satisfaction. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 14(2), 148-158. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-839X.2010.01338.x URL
[64]	Zhou, H,. & Long, L. R. (2004). Statistical remedies for common method biases. Advances in Psychological Science, 12(6), 942-950.
[65]	Zhou, Y,. & Liu, J. S. (2015). Relations between shyness and psychological adjustment among grades 3~8 students: Examining a mediated moderation model. Journal of Psychological Science, 38(4), 861-869.
[66]	Zhu, L (2006). The problems and educational strategies of children’s social development in single parent families(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Nanjing Normal University,China.

Variables	Model	χ2	df	CFI	TLI	RMSEA	Model comparison	Δχ2	Δdf	p
Relative deprivation	M1: Configural invariance	240.16	106	0.95	0.94	0.07
	M2: Metric invariance	256.99	115	0.95	0.94	0.06	M2-M1	16.83	9	>0.05
	M3: Strong invariance	265.87	124	0.94	0.93	0.06	M3-M2	8.88	9	>0.05
	M4: Strict invariance	280.63	135	0.93	0.93	0.06	M4-M3	14.76	11	>0.05
Depression	M1: Configural invariance	254.19	76	0.94	0.93	0.07
	M2: Metric invariance	268.83	84	0.93	0.92	0.07	M2-M1	14.64	8	>0.05
	M3: Strong invariance	276.11	92	0.93	0.92	0.07	M3-M2	7.28	8	>0.05
	M4: Strict invariance	289.40	102	0.92	0.92	0.07	M4-M3	13.29	10	>0.05
Loneliness	M1: Configural invariance	276.33	82	0.93	0.93	0.07
	M2: Metric invariance	292.76	91	0.93	0.92	0.07	M2-M1	16.43	9	>0.05
	M3: Strong invariance	301.03	100	0.93	0.92	0.07	M3-M2	8.27	9	>0.05
	M4: Strict invariance	313.44	111	0.92	0.91	0.07	M4-M3	12.41	11	>0.05
Social anxiety	M1: Configural invariance	218.33	65	0.94	0.93	0.07
	M2: Metric invariance	231.59	75	0.93	0.92	0.07	M2-M1	13.26	10	>0.05
	M3: Strong invariance	238.45	85	0.93	0.92	0.06	M3-M2	6.86	10	>0.05
	M4: Strict invariance	249.79	97	0.92	0.92	0.06	M4-M3	11.34	12	>0.05
Self-esteem	M1: Configural invariance	214.08	64	0.95	0.94	0.07
	M2: Metric invariance	227.32	73	0.94	0.93	0.07	M2-M1	13.24	9	>0.05
	M3: Strong invariance	233.48	82	0.94	0.93	0.06	M3-M2	6.16	9	>0.05
	M4: Strict invariance	245.80	94	0.93	0.92	0.06	M4-M3	12.32	12	>0.05

Variables	Model	χ2	df	CFI	TLI	RMSEA	Model comparison	Δχ2	Δdf	p
Relative deprivation	M1: Configural invariance	240.16	106	0.95	0.94	0.07
	M2: Metric invariance	256.99	115	0.95	0.94	0.06	M2-M1	16.83	9	>0.05
	M3: Strong invariance	265.87	124	0.94	0.93	0.06	M3-M2	8.88	9	>0.05
	M4: Strict invariance	280.63	135	0.93	0.93	0.06	M4-M3	14.76	11	>0.05
Depression	M1: Configural invariance	254.19	76	0.94	0.93	0.07
	M2: Metric invariance	268.83	84	0.93	0.92	0.07	M2-M1	14.64	8	>0.05
	M3: Strong invariance	276.11	92	0.93	0.92	0.07	M3-M2	7.28	8	>0.05
	M4: Strict invariance	289.40	102	0.92	0.92	0.07	M4-M3	13.29	10	>0.05
Loneliness	M1: Configural invariance	276.33	82	0.93	0.93	0.07
	M2: Metric invariance	292.76	91	0.93	0.92	0.07	M2-M1	16.43	9	>0.05
	M3: Strong invariance	301.03	100	0.93	0.92	0.07	M3-M2	8.27	9	>0.05
	M4: Strict invariance	313.44	111	0.92	0.91	0.07	M4-M3	12.41	11	>0.05
Social anxiety	M1: Configural invariance	218.33	65	0.94	0.93	0.07
	M2: Metric invariance	231.59	75	0.93	0.92	0.07	M2-M1	13.26	10	>0.05
	M3: Strong invariance	238.45	85	0.93	0.92	0.06	M3-M2	6.86	10	>0.05
	M4: Strict invariance	249.79	97	0.92	0.92	0.06	M4-M3	11.34	12	>0.05
Self-esteem	M1: Configural invariance	214.08	64	0.95	0.94	0.07
	M2: Metric invariance	227.32	73	0.94	0.93	0.07	M2-M1	13.24	9	>0.05
	M3: Strong invariance	233.48	82	0.94	0.93	0.06	M3-M2	6.16	9	>0.05
	M4: Strict invariance	245.80	94	0.93	0.92	0.06	M4-M3	12.32	12	>0.05

Variables	Boys (n = 138)	Girls (n = 135)	Primary schools (n = 148)	Junior high schools (n = 125)	Poor families (n = 128)	Non-poor families (n = 145)
Relative deprivationT1	4.09 ± 0.95	3.93 ± 0.85	3.56 ± 0.94	3.78 ± 0.96	4.90 ± 0.43	3.79 ± 0.82
Depression T 1	1.95 ± 0.72	1.84 ± 0.57	1.81 ± 0.58	1.89 ± 0.46	2.41 ± 0.87	1.76 ± 0.50
Loneliness T 1	2.10 ± 0.83	1.81 ± 0.38	1.87 ± 0.65	1.99 ± 0.58	2.59 ± 0.65	1.77 ± 0.46
Social anxiety T1	1.10 ± 0.70	0.94 ± 0.63	0.94 ± 0.83	1.12 ± 0.65	1.34 ± 0.61	0.92 ± 0.64
Self-esteem T 1	2.62 ± 0.62	2.80 ± 0.35	2.78 ± 0.46	2.68 ± 0.36	2.42 ± 0.51	2.80 ± 0.43
Relative deprivation T2	4.21 ± 0.79	3.74 ± 0.96	4.24 ± 1.11	4.06 ± 0.84	4.93 ± 0.64	3.58 ± 0.79
Depression T2	2.09 ± 0.20	1.83 ± 0.22	2.00 ± 0.55	2.09 ± 0.41	1.96 ± 0.27	1.88 ± 0.24
Loneliness T 2	2.33 ± 0.35	2.06 ± 0.26	2.23 ± 0.47	2.21 ± 0.36	2.31 ± 0.51	2.07 ± 0.22
Social Anxiety T2	1.20 ± 0.62	1.13 ± 0.62	0.91 ± 0.66	1.26 ± 0.67	1.34 ± 0.44	1.10 ± 0.64
Self-esteem T2	2.63 ± 0.72	3.02 ± 0.35	2.69 ± 0.16	2.64 ± 0.26	2.26 ± 0.44	3.09 ± 0.32
Relative deprivation T3	4.16 ± 0.81	3.78 ± 0.91	3.94 ± 0.94	3.77 ± 0.73	4.94 ± 0.69	3.68 ± 0.76
Depression T3	2.31 ± 0.37	1.96 ± 0.35	2.36 ± 0.45	2.12 ± 0.30	2.38 ± 0.49	2.00 ± 0.34
Loneliness T 3	2.29 ± 0.43	2.01 ± 0.24	2.31 ± 0.34	2.12 ± 0.34	2.36 ± 0.58	2.05 ± 0.24
Social anxiety T3	1.51 ± 0.69	1.03 ± 0.68	1.13 ± 0.61	1.18 ± 0.68	1.70 ± 0.96	1.06 ± 0.62
Self-esteem T 3	2.60 ± 0.54	2.70 ± 0.46	2.86 ± 0.42	2.69 ± 0.22	2.38 ± 0.45	2.96 ± 0.46

Variables	Boys (n = 138)	Girls (n = 135)	Primary schools (n = 148)	Junior high schools (n = 125)	Poor families (n = 128)	Non-poor families (n = 145)
Relative deprivationT1	4.09 ± 0.95	3.93 ± 0.85	3.56 ± 0.94	3.78 ± 0.96	4.90 ± 0.43	3.79 ± 0.82
Depression T 1	1.95 ± 0.72	1.84 ± 0.57	1.81 ± 0.58	1.89 ± 0.46	2.41 ± 0.87	1.76 ± 0.50
Loneliness T 1	2.10 ± 0.83	1.81 ± 0.38	1.87 ± 0.65	1.99 ± 0.58	2.59 ± 0.65	1.77 ± 0.46
Social anxiety T1	1.10 ± 0.70	0.94 ± 0.63	0.94 ± 0.83	1.12 ± 0.65	1.34 ± 0.61	0.92 ± 0.64
Self-esteem T 1	2.62 ± 0.62	2.80 ± 0.35	2.78 ± 0.46	2.68 ± 0.36	2.42 ± 0.51	2.80 ± 0.43
Relative deprivation T2	4.21 ± 0.79	3.74 ± 0.96	4.24 ± 1.11	4.06 ± 0.84	4.93 ± 0.64	3.58 ± 0.79
Depression T2	2.09 ± 0.20	1.83 ± 0.22	2.00 ± 0.55	2.09 ± 0.41	1.96 ± 0.27	1.88 ± 0.24
Loneliness T 2	2.33 ± 0.35	2.06 ± 0.26	2.23 ± 0.47	2.21 ± 0.36	2.31 ± 0.51	2.07 ± 0.22
Social Anxiety T2	1.20 ± 0.62	1.13 ± 0.62	0.91 ± 0.66	1.26 ± 0.67	1.34 ± 0.44	1.10 ± 0.64
Self-esteem T2	2.63 ± 0.72	3.02 ± 0.35	2.69 ± 0.16	2.64 ± 0.26	2.26 ± 0.44	3.09 ± 0.32
Relative deprivation T3	4.16 ± 0.81	3.78 ± 0.91	3.94 ± 0.94	3.77 ± 0.73	4.94 ± 0.69	3.68 ± 0.76
Depression T3	2.31 ± 0.37	1.96 ± 0.35	2.36 ± 0.45	2.12 ± 0.30	2.38 ± 0.49	2.00 ± 0.34
Loneliness T 3	2.29 ± 0.43	2.01 ± 0.24	2.31 ± 0.34	2.12 ± 0.34	2.36 ± 0.58	2.05 ± 0.24
Social anxiety T3	1.51 ± 0.69	1.03 ± 0.68	1.13 ± 0.61	1.18 ± 0.68	1.70 ± 0.96	1.06 ± 0.62
Self-esteem T 3	2.60 ± 0.54	2.70 ± 0.46	2.86 ± 0.42	2.69 ± 0.22	2.38 ± 0.45	2.96 ± 0.46

	Variables	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14
1.	Relative deprivation T1	1
2.	Depression T 1	0.53^**	1
3.	Loneliness T 1	0.53^**	0.45^**	1
4.	Social anxiety T1	0.30^*	0.60^**	0.32^*	1
5.	Self-esteem T1	-0.55^**	-0.64^**	-0.26^*	-0.52^**	1
6.	Relative deprivation T2	0.64^**	0.51^**	0.42^*	0.30^*	-0.40^*	1
7.	Depression T2	0.26^*	0.32^*	0.27^*	0.33^*	-0.35^*	0.24^*	1
8.	Loneliness T2	0.21^*	0.24^*	0.51^**	0.38^*	-0.30^*	0.28^*	0.67^**	1
9.	Social anxiety T2	0.22^*	0.52^**	0.28^*	0.71^***	-0.37^*	0.23^*	0.37^*	0.31^*	1
10.	Self-esteem T2	-0.40^*	-0.53^**	-0.58^**	-0.45^**	0.60^**	-0.41^*	-0.36^*	-0.54^**	-0.35^*	1
11.	Relative deprivation T3	0.68^**	0.64^**	0.60^**	0.46^**	-0.33^*	0.83^***	0.33^*	0.36^*	0.50^**	-0.48^**	1
12.	Depression T3	0.28^*	0.40^*	0.61^**	0.34^*	-0.22^*	0.23^*	0.63^**	0.67^**	0.36^*	-0.52^**	0.30^*	1
13.	Loneliness T3	0.33^*	0.42^*	0.59^**	0.37^*	0.23^*	0.29^*	0.66^**	0.80^***	0.25^*	-0.52^**	0.28^*	0.62^**	1
14.	Social anxiety T3	0.37^*	0.61^**	0.55^**	0.65^**	-0.30^*	0.30^*	0.59^**	0.46^**	0.83^***	-0.34^*	0.49^**	0.55^**	0.53^**	1
15.	Self-esteem T 3	-0.58^**	-0.65^**	-0.47^**	-0.36^*	0.60^**	-0.44^*	0.46^*	-0.23^*	-0.25^*	0.57^**	-0.35^*	-0.39^*	-0.24^*	-0.33^*