1 引言
说谎是一种常见的社会行为, 它是指人们故意隐瞒事实、歪曲或凭空编造虚假信息以误导他人的行为(DePaulo et al., 2003)。人在说谎时, 会诱发恐惧以及与恐惧相关的情绪, 如紧张感、罪恶感等(郑红丽, 丁同春, 2007)。受这些情绪影响, 人在说谎时会产生很多生理变化, 如皮肤电水平增高、血压升高、呼吸频率变快、音高变高和瞳孔放大等(DePaulo et al., 2003)。人在说谎时认知负荷更高(Bruno, Nils, Yoella, David, & Shaul, 2018)。心理冲突理论认为, 人在说真话时认知负荷低, 在说谎时认知负荷高, 这是由于人在说谎时会产生两个心理意向, 一个来自对事实的认识, 另一个来自对谎言的认识。两个完全相反的心理意向会带来强烈的心理冲突。说真话的人只是陈述对事实的认识, 只有一个心理意向, 不会出现心理冲突(Davis, 1961)。
许多研究发现了说谎的认知神经线索。基于ERP的测谎研究关注人在说谎时的认知过程, CNV是可利用的主要脑电成分。CNV是在警示刺激和命令刺激之间出现的持续负波, 一般发生在警示刺激出现后的1000~1500 ms之间, 主要与期待、意向、动机等心理活动有关(魏景汉, 罗跃嘉, 2002; Fang, Liu, & Shen, 2003)。人在说谎时, CNV出现在欺骗准备阶段, 反映被试在说谎时具有更高的认知负荷(Suchotzki, Crombez, Smulders, Meijer, & Verschuere, 2015)。对比起说真话, 说谎会诱发更大的CNV波幅(Dong, Hu, Lu, & Wu, 2010; Fang et al., 2003; Sun, Mai, Liu, Liu, & Luo, 2011)。CNV更多地体现了欺骗准备过程, 与材料的属性无关(浦晓黎, 2006)。
与说谎类似, 人在使用母语和外语陈述时也存在认知负荷和情绪的差异。人在用外语陈述时, 会增加认知负担。这是因为用外语陈述时的神经处理需要使用额外的运动神经元(Service, Simola, Metsänheimo, & Maury, 2002)。Cooper和Sweller (1987)认为, 认知负荷是指同时要求施加于工作记忆上的心智活动总量。在外语条件下, 工作记忆广度比母语条件下更低。Qin, Xu和Yao (2011)对多个国家的双语者研究发现, 在各民族的学习者中, 工作记忆广度排名从最高到最低分别是L1听觉、L1视觉、L2视觉、L2听觉。从情绪唤醒的角度看, 人在用外语表达时, 对表达内容的情绪激活程度不如讲母语时强烈。俞锦旺、张积家和穆彦丁(2013)发现, 母语幽默材料和禁忌词唤醒的情绪显著高于外语幽默材料和禁忌词。Dewaele (2008)发现, 包括责骂词、爱慕短语在内的多种表达受语言影响。情绪记忆和中性记忆的增强(EEM效应)在L1中表现得更强, 在L2中表现得更弱(Baumeister, Francesco, Conrad, Rumiati, & Winkielman, 2017)。人在说外语时会引发焦虑情绪(Aichhorn & Puck, 2017; Djigunovi, 2006; 王才康, 2003)。这种情绪包括担心、紧张不安、害怕说错话等。外语焦虑情绪也与个体的外语熟练程度有关。低熟练外语学习者的外语焦虑情绪更加明显(张日昇, 袁莉敏, 2004)。
人在使用母语和外语说谎时的生理差异也引起了研究者的关注。研究发现, 比起用母语说谎, 人在用外语说谎时的反应更慢、皮肤电反应更强(Caldwel-Harris & Dinn, 2009; Suchotzki & Gamer, 2018)、瞳孔扩张更大、发音时长更长(Duñabeitia & Costa, 2015)。这一现象的心理含义是：比起用母语说谎, 人在用外语说谎时, 会出现更明显的说谎的特征。研究者将这种现象归因于认知负荷和外语焦虑的影响。但是, 用外语说谎时, 与说谎相关的情绪唤醒度更低。Caldwel-Harris和Dinn (2009)调查发现, 被试用母语说谎时, 有更强烈的羞愧感(感到脸红), 他们感受到“自己在说谎”的程度远高于使用外语说谎时。郭楠(2009)对中-英双语者研究发现, 用第二语言说谎能够降低说谎者的负疚感。
已有研究大多关注皮肤电、反应时等指标。人在使用母语和外语说谎时的差异可能受到不同因素的共同影响, 不同因素在说谎的不同阶段对认知神经活动的影响也可能不同, 而皮肤电、反应时等指标无法有效地反映这些因素的各自作用。因此, 本研究选择时间敏感度更高的脑电指标, 旨在探索中-英双语者用汉语和英语说真话和说谎时的认知神经差异。为了同时考察认知负荷、外语焦虑和说谎诱发的紧张情绪对说真话与说谎的影响, 研究选取了P200和CNV两种脑电成分。P200是在刺激呈现后200 ms左右出现的正波, 常用来研究情绪唤醒。研究表明, 当消极情绪被唤醒时, P200的波幅会增加(Carretié, Mercado, Tapia, & Jhinojosa, 2001; 宋阳, 2007)。此外, 个体的焦虑程度越高, P200的波幅就越大(Gole, Schäfer, & Schienle, 2012)。也有研究发现, 相对于识别安全环境事件, 识别风险环境事件引起的P200更强(秦军刚, 2009)。在测谎研究中, “说谎被抓住”比“说谎被发现”诱发了更大的P200波幅(崔茜, 张庆林, 2013)。因此, 本研究将P200作为观测早期焦虑情绪的指标, 将CNV波幅作为衡量说真话和说谎时的认知负荷指标。在此基础上, 采用相关分析技术探索英语熟练程度、行为数据与脑电成分差异之间是否相关。
根据已有研究, 笔者预期, 对中-英双语者而言：(1)说谎比说真话的焦虑程度更高(P200的波幅更大); (2)用英语说谎比用汉语说谎的焦虑程度更高(P200的波幅更大); (3)比起说真话, 说谎的认知负荷更大(CNV的波幅更大); (4)比起用汉语说谎, 用英语说谎的认知负荷更大(CNV的波幅更大); (5)英语熟练程度影响用两种语言说谎时的行为反应与认知神经差异。
2 方法
2.1 被试
母语为汉语、第二语言为英语的被试34人, 平均年龄为23.90 ± 2.09岁, 男女各半, 普通话标准。被试学习英语的年限为17.20 ± 2.22年, 视力正常或矫正视力正常, 均为右利手。
2.2 实验材料
从张清芳和杨玉芳(2003)的标准化命名图片库中选取5张动物线条图片：猫、狗、鱼、鸟、羊。这些动物线条图片分别用红色RGB (255, 0, 0)、绿色RGB (0, 255, 0)和蓝色(0, 0, 255)呈现, 总共有15种组合。图片名称均为高频词, 使用频率大于每百万130次。材料按照伪随机序列呈现, 每隔两名被试更换一次伪随机序列。
2.3 实验设计
2(描述语言：汉语/英语) × 2(诚实与否：说真话/说谎)被试内设计。因变量为被试的反应正确率和脑电指标。在控制实验顺序的前提下, 每名被试分别完成汉语真话/汉语说谎/英语真话/英语说谎的任务。
2.4 实验程序
实验采用错误陈述范式。被试根据屏幕上的指示, 对呈现材料进行正确陈述或者错误陈述, 错误陈述即为说谎。考虑到描述语言不同可能影响被试的决策过程, 因此, 选择被动说谎范式, 即在实验过程中, 向被试呈现说真话或说谎话的指示, 被试根据指示做出反应。由于要观察的脑电波形包含CNV, 因此, 采用延时反应范式。延时反应范式分为两种刺激, 被试看到警示刺激(S1)不反应, 只是做好反应的准备, 等待提示符号(S2)出现后立即反应, 在被试准备的过程中, 可以观察到CNV的变化(崔茜等, 2009)。
在实验前, 被试完成英语熟练程度的自评测验。英语能力自评测验选自教育部和国家语言文字工作委员会2018年发布的《中国英语能力等级量表》(China Standards of English, 简称CSE)。该量表为9点量表, 能力总表包括听力理解能力总表、阅读理解能力总表、口头表达能力总表、书面表达能力总表、组构能力总表、语用能力总表、口译能力总表、笔译能力总表8个分量表。被试先根据英语能力总表进行自评, 随后对除口译和笔译外的6个分表进行自评。由于英语口译能力和英语笔译能力均建立在一定的双语水平基础上, 初始级别为五级, 不适用于全体被试, 因而未进行测试。
然后, 被试学习实验材料, 确保被试能够熟练使用汉语和英语对图片进行“颜色+图片”命名, 如“红猫” (“red cat”)。为了让被试充分唤起说谎情绪, 主试通过指导语告知被试在实验中尽量地模拟生活中说真话和说谎的场景, 并且说明他们的语料会被录音, 以供其他人进行谎言识别。由于使用脑电帽来记录反应, 因此告知被试避免乱动、眨眼等行为。
在正式实验中, 被试坐在隔音的电磁屏蔽室内, 面对台式奔腾4型计算机显示屏, 双眼距离显示屏80 cm, 屏幕统一显示亮度、色调和对比度。首先, 在屏幕中央呈现“+”注视点500 ms; 之后在屏幕中央呈现一张图片, 大小为12 cm × 15 cm, 呈现时间为800 ms。随后, 在图片的正下方出现“真话”或“谎话”的指示(在讲英语区间出现“truth”或“lie”的指示) (S1), 被试根据屏幕提示对图片说真话或者说谎, 在说谎时要求被试对图片中的动物及颜色同时进行错误描述, 描述应该为实验材料中出现的其他动物和其他颜色。指示和图片共同在屏幕上呈现2000 ms。此时被试不反应, 而是根据图片和指示为陈述做好准备。接下来, 图片和指示消失, 在屏幕的正中出现“*” (S2)。被试的任务是在星号出现后, 尽快尽量准确地根据先前的指示对图片进行描述, 描述的方式为“颜色+动物”, 如“蓝狗” (“blue dog”)。被试出声, 星号随即消失, 间隔1500 ms后, 开始下一试次。实验流程图见图1。如果被试在星号出现后4500 ms内未反应, 直接进入下一试次。实验采用E-Prime 2.0编写程序, 使用Neuroscan公司64导电极帽和放大器收集数据。被试的反应通过SRBOX连接麦克风来记录, 计算机自动记录反应时间, 主试记录反应的正误。实验分为英语区间和汉语区间, 在被试间平衡区间的先后顺序。在实验前设有练习阶段, 共有8个试次, 以便让被试熟悉实验程序。正式实验包含240个试次, 在每种实验条件各出现了60试次。
图1
实验结束后, 请被试对实验中用汉语或英语说真话/说谎的任务进行焦虑情绪评定(Caldwell- Harris & Dinn, 2009)。情绪评定使用5点量表, 调查被试的主观感受：(1)在使用汉语/英语说真话/说谎时, 所感受到的焦虑程度(1为“非常放松”, 5为“非常焦虑”); (2)在使用汉语/英语说真话/说谎时, 所感受到的难度(1为“非常容易”, 5为“非常困难”)。另外, 调查被试说真话和说谎时更倾向选择的语言及原因。随后, 被试完成中英文快速命名测验(Denckla & Rudel, 1974)。测验一般包括4种任务：图片、颜色、数字和字母的命名, 要求被试以最快速度将所看到的图片、颜色、数字或字母从左至右、从上至下按顺序命名, 得分为完成任务所用的时间。选取快速命名测验中的颜色和数字范式, 控制测试顺序, 分别让被试用汉语和英语快速命名。
2.5 ERP记录和分析
采用Neuroscan公司ERP工作站记录EEG信号, 采用国际10-20系统扩展的64导电极帽收集EEG信号。脑电记录采用单侧导联, 以左侧乳突为参考电极, 接地点为Fpz和Fz中点, 以左眼眶上和下正中电极记录垂直眼电(VEOG), 以两眼外侧1.5 cm处记录水平眼电(HEOG)。实验前头皮电阻降至5 k以下。在完成EEG波形收集后, 采用离线处理(offline)数据。离线处理选取零参考处理, 带通滤波为0~30 Hz。校正垂直和水平眼电HEOG和VEOG, 对波幅在 ± 50 μV范围外者视为伪迹自动剔除。分析窗口为第三屏的100~1800 ms, 采用第三屏的-100~0 ms为基线矫正。根据脑电地形图和叠加后的波形图, 在各个波幅中选取合适的电极点来研究。由于实验为延时反应, 所以, 行为数据只分析反应正确率。
3 结果与分析
3.1 英语能力测试分析
被试的英语能力自评为4.96 ± 1.51分, 口头表达能力自评为4.98 ± 1.90分, 快速命名汉语速度为20.99s ± 4.68 s, 快速命名英语速度为34.30s ± 8.72 s。分析表明, 英语能力自评分数与英语口头表达能力自评分数正相关显著, r = 0.95, p < 0.001。英语快速命名时间与英语能力自评分数负相关显著, r = -0.60, p < 0.001; 与英语口头表达能力自评分数负相关显著, r = -0.67, p < 0.001。
3.2 焦虑评定和难度评定分析
被试在不同实验条件下的焦虑程度评定和任务难度评定见表1。
表1 被试在不同条件下的焦虑程度评定和任务难度评定(N = 34)
| 主观评分 | 实验条件 | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 汉语真话 | 汉语谎话 | 英语真话 | 英语谎话 | |
| 焦虑评定 | 1.65 (1.03) | 3.00 (1.06) | 2.41 (0.88) | 3.35 (1.05) |
| 难度评定 | 1.53 (0.81) | 2.47 (0.88) | 2.24 (1.03) | 3.38 (0.97) |
对“焦虑程度”和“任务难度”的评定分别进行2(描述语言：汉语/英语) × 2(诚实与否：说真话/说谎)的重复测量方差分析。结果发现, 在焦虑程度维度, 描述语言的主效应显著, F(1, 32) = 14.67, p = 0.001, ηp2 = 0.31。均数比较表明, 无论被试是说真话还是说谎, 讲汉语时的焦虑程度都显著小于讲英语时, p = 0.001。诚实与否的主效应显著, F(1, 32) = 37.13, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.53。均数比较表明, 无论被试讲汉语还是讲英语, 说真话的焦虑程度都显著小于说谎, p < 0.001。描述语言和诚实与否之间的交互作用边缘显著, F(1, 32) = 3.64, p = 0.065, ηp2 = 0.10。简单效应分析表明, 被试用汉语和英语说真话时的焦虑程度差异显著, p < 0.001; 被试用汉语和英语说谎时的焦虑程度差异边缘显著, p = 0.056。被试用汉语和英语说真话时的焦虑程度差异比说谎时的差异更大。在任务难度维度, 描述语言的主效应显著, F(1, 32) = 28.22, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.46。均数比较表明, 无论被试说真话还是说谎, 讲汉语时的难度都显著小于讲英语时, p < 0.001。诚实与否的主效应显著, F(1, 32) = 28.33, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.46。均数比较表明, 无论被试讲汉语还是讲英语, 说真话时的难度都显著小于说谎, p < 0.001。描述语言和诚实与否之间的交互作用不显著, F(1, 32) = 1.34, p = 0.256。在34名被试中, 30名被试更倾向于用中文说真话, 4名被试更倾向于用英文说真话; 22名被试更倾向于用中文说谎, 12名被试更倾向于用英文说谎。选择用中文说真话和说谎的被试的主要理由为：母语更自然, 英语不流利; 选择用英文说真话和说谎的主要理由为：情绪唤醒低, 心理压力小。
3.3 反应正确率的分析
被试在不同条件下的反应正确率见表2。
表2 被试在不同条件下的平均正确率(%)
| 描述语言 | 诚实与否 | |
|---|---|---|
| 说谎 | 说真话 | |
| 汉语 | 95.94 (3.02) | 98.22 (1.96) |
| 英语 | 94.28 (3.55) | 97.97 (1.78) |
注：括号内的数据为标准差。
2(描述语言：汉语/英语) × 2(诚实与否：说真话/说谎)的重复测量方差分析表明, 描述语言的主效应显著, F(1, 32) = 31.09, p = 0.038, ηp2 = 0.12; 诚实与否的主效应显著, F = (1, 32) = 69.07, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.68。描述语言和诚实与否之间的交互作用显著, F(1, 32) = 17.15, p = 0.023, ηp2 = 0.15。简单效应分析表明, 被试用汉语说谎和用英语说谎的平均正确率差异显著, p = 0.014, 95% CI = [-0.55,1.04]; 被试用汉语说真话和用英语说真话的平均正确率差异不显著, p = 0.535。
3.4 脑电数据分析
图2
图3
3.4.1 P200 (170~240 ms)波幅分析
参考Bourisly和Shuaib (2018)的研究, 选取F1、F2、Fz、Fc1、Fc2和Fcz六个电极点进行分析, 时间窗为170~240 ms。对平均波幅进行2(描述语言：汉语/英语) × 2(诚实与否：说真话/说谎) × 6(电极点：F1/F2/Fz/Fc1/Fc2/Fcz)的重复测量方差分析。结果表明, 描述语言的主效应不显著, F(1, 25) = 0.56, p = 0.463; 诚实与否的主效应不显著, F(1, 25) = 2.42, p = 0.132; 电极点的主效应显著, F(1, 25) = 11.02, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.30, Fz点波幅最大; 描述语言和诚实与否的交互作用显著, F(1, 25) = 10.05, p = 0.004, ηp2 = 0.30。简单效应分析表明, 在被试说真话时, 讲英语时诱发的P200波幅显著高于讲汉语时, p = 0.002, 95% CI = [-1.20,-0.30]; 在被试说谎时, 讲汉语与讲英语所诱发的P200波幅差异不显著, p = 0.117。在被试讲汉语时, 说谎时诱发的P200波幅显著高于说真话时, p = 0.009, 95% CI = [-1.54,-0.24]; 在被试讲英语时, 说真话和说谎时诱发的P200波幅差异不显著, p = 0.085。
3.4.2 CNV (1000~1500 ms)波幅分析
参照已有研究(Suchotzki et al, 2015), 选取Fz, Fcz和Cz三个电极点进行分析, 时间窗为800~ 1600 ms。对平均波幅做2(描述语言：汉语/英语) × 2(诚实与否：说真话/说谎) × 3(电极点：Fz/Fcz/Cz)的重复测量方差分析。结果表明, 描述语言的主效应边缘显著, F(1, 25) = 3.69, p = 0.066。诚实与否的主效应显著, F(1, 25) = 12.04, p = 0.002, ηp2 = 0.32。均数比较表明, 无论被试讲汉语还是讲英语, 说真话时和说谎时的CNV波幅差异均显著, p = 0.002, 95% CI = [0.602, 2.351], 说谎时诱发了更大的负波。电极点的主效应不显著, F(1, 25) = 2.773, p = 0.082。描述语言和诚实与否交互作用显著, F(1, 25) = 4.30, p = 0.048, ηp2 = 0.14。简单效应分析表明, 被试用英语说谎时比用汉语说谎时诱发了更大的CNV波幅, p = 0.035, 95% CI = [0.11, 2.67]; 被试用汉语和用英语说真话时, 所诱发的CNV波幅差异不显著, p = 0.777。
3.5 测验数据、行为数据与脑电数据的相关分析
对行为数据、P200和CNV的平均波幅与被试的英语能力自评分数和快速命名分数进行Pearson相关分析。结果见表3。
表3 被试的英语能力自评分数、反应正确率和脑电反应指标的相关
| 相关性 | 正确率 | P200 | CNV | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 汉语真话 | 汉语谎话 | 英语真话 | 英语谎话 | 汉语真话 | 汉语谎话 | 英语真话 | 英语谎话 | 汉语真话 | 汉语谎话 | 英语真话 | 英语谎话 | |
| 汉语快速 命名时长 | -0.16 | -0.04 | -0.22 | -0.04 | 0.13 | 0.33 | 0.18 | 0.07 | 0.29 | -0.35 | 0.06 | -0.24 |
| 英语快速 命名时长 | -0.19 | -0.29 | -0.26 | -0.20 | 0.31 | 0.31 | 0.25 | 0.44* | 0.05 | -0.15 | -0.16 | -0.44* |
| 英语语言 能力总分 | 0.15 | 0.18 | 0.38* | 0.23 | -0.26 | -0.21 | -0.20 | -0.27 | 0.03 | 0.17 | 0.30 | 0.25 |
| 听力理解 | -0.05 | 0.28 | 0.32 | 0.23 | -0.23 | -0.08 | -0.05 | -0.32 | -0.25 | 0.12 | 0.03 | 0.05 |
| 阅读理解 | -0.16 | 0.16 | 0.38* | 0.22 | -0.12 | -0.12 | 0.011 | -0.20 | -0.27 | 0.02 | 0.05 | -0.03 |
| 口头表达 | 0.15 | 0.25 | 0.42* | 0.17 | -0.23 | -0.20 | -0.14 | -0.24 | -0.15 | 0.07 | 0.04 | 0.11 |
| 书面表达 | 0.10 | 0.10 | 0.30 | 0.14 | -0.10 | -0.08 | -0.03 | -0.32 | -0.17 | -0.03 | -0.06 | 0.05 |
| 组构能力 | 0.05 | 0.25 | 0.43* | 0.25 | -0.37 | -0.22 | -0.27 | -0.39* | -0.14 | 0.15 | 0.08 | 0.21 |
| 语用能力 | -0.12 | 0.03 | 0.27 | 0.15 | -0.19 | -0.17 | -0.07 | -0.36 | -0.25 | 0.04 | -0.08 | 0.16 |
注：*表示p < 0.05。
分析发现：(1)被试用英语说真话的正确率与英语能力自评分数正相关显著, r = 0.38, p = 0.026。被试的英语语言能力自评分数越高, 用英语说真话的正确率就越高。被试用英语说真话的正确率与阅读理解能力、口头表达能力、组构能力的自评分数正相关显著, r 值分别为0.38、0.42和0.43, ps < 0.05; (2)被试用英语说谎时, 英语快速命名时长与P200波幅正相关显著, r = 0.44, p = 0.022。被试用英语快速命名用时越长, 用英语说谎时P200波幅也越大; 被试用英语说谎时, 英语组构能力与P200波幅负相关显著, r = -0.39, p = 0.047。被试的英语组构能力越强, P200波幅就越小; (3)被试用英语说谎时, 英语快速命名时长与CNV波幅负相关显著, r = -0.44, p = 0.021。被试用英语快速命名用时越长, 用英语说谎时CNV波幅就越负。这说明, 被试的英语越不熟练, 用英语说真话时正确率就越低, 用英语说谎时焦虑程度就越高, 用英语说谎时认知负荷就越大。在各英语子能力中, 组构能力作用更突出。被试的英语组构能力越低, 用英语说谎时焦虑程度就越高。
4 讨论
本研究采用错误陈述范式探索中-英双语者用母语和外语说真话和说谎时的认知神经差异, 通过观测P200和CNV两个脑电成分, 考察外语焦虑、认知负荷和说谎诱发的紧张情绪对中-英双语者用母语和外语说真话和说谎的影响。下面, 就对研究结果做一些讨论。
4.1 关于中-英双语者用母语和外语说真话和说谎时P200波幅差异
一般认为, 说谎行为分为4个阶段：(1)对刺激的识别与加工; (2)产生反应意向和反应准备; (3)执行说谎反应; (4)评价反馈(李冬, 周婷, 岳勤, 胡巧, 曹贵康, 2012)。多数研究针对说谎行为中隐瞒已知信息和执行说谎反应这两个过程来进行。隐瞒已知信息属于欺骗准备。P200是出现在加工早期且与注意资源分配相关的脑电成分(Luck, Woodman, & Vogel, 2000)。研究显示, P200更多地指向消极信息(马建苓, 陈旭, 王婧, 2012)。罗跃嘉、黄宇霞、李新影和李雪冰(2006)发现, 在内隐情绪任务中, 负性刺激引起的P200波幅大, 潜伏期短。这表明, P200受注意调节。郭军峰和罗跃嘉(2007)发现, 悲伤图片诱发的P200潜伏期短, 说明P200反映对情绪的自动加工, P200波幅越大, 说明个体投入的注意量也越大。大量研究发现, 异族面孔诱发了波幅更正的P200, 反映出对异族面孔种族特征的注意偏向(琚长庭, 汪亚珉, 2012)。例如, Ito和Urland (2003)让白人判断白人面孔和黑人面孔的种族或性别, 发现与本族面孔比, 异族面孔诱发了波幅更正的P200。Ito和Urland (2005)发现, 无论任务是否要求被试注意面孔的种族特征, 异族面孔都诱发出了波幅更正的P200。Willadsen-Jensen和Ito (2006)以白人为被试, 观看白人、黑人和亚洲人的面孔并要求被试按照种族来分类, 亦发现亚洲人面孔比白人面孔诱发了更大波幅的P200。Bartholow和Dickter (2008)以白人为被试, 同样发现黑人面孔引发了更大的P200。Dickter和Bartholow (2007)发现, 对白人被试, 黑人面孔比白人面孔诱发出更大波幅的 P200; 对黑人被试, 白人面孔引发了更大波幅的 P200。上述研究说明, P200是对内、外群体区分的特异性波, 大脑对种族特征加工表现出注意偏向。P200与焦虑也有很大关系(Sylvester et al, 2012; Fisher et al, 2010)。Sylvester等(2012)指出, 当个体具有强烈的焦虑特质或者被激活焦虑情绪时, P200的波幅将增大。Fisher等(2010)将焦虑的唤醒和对情绪的注意作为P200的预测因子进行回归分析, 发现焦虑唤醒可以作为P200波幅的预测因子, 这进一步说明了P200与焦虑情绪的关系。徐艳丽(2012)分析了不同算术任务和策略选择条件下的P200, 发现高数学焦虑个体的P200潜伏期显著长于低数学焦虑个体的P200潜伏期, 高、低数学焦虑个体在N1-P2复合波上也存在差异。Bar-Haim, Lamy和Glickman (2005)表明, 高焦虑特质被试在完成面孔识别任务时诱发了更大波幅的P200。Dennis和Chen (2007)的研究也证实了这一点。
在本研究中, 中-英双语者在用汉语说真话时, P200波幅显著小于其他条件。这说明, 中-英双语者在讲英语时存在“外语焦虑”, 在说谎时存在紧张情绪。Horwitz (1986)首先提出“外语焦虑” (Foreign Language Anxiety)的概念, 认为“外语焦虑是一种产生于外语学习过程和课堂外语学习相联系的有关自我知觉、信念、情感和行为的独特的综合体”。外语焦虑体现在外语习得过程中。在学习外语时, 口语、阅读和写作均受外语焦虑影响(Sibel, 2015; Jing, 2017; Gülşah & Ahmet, 2015)。外语焦虑水平高者对学习外语心存恐惧, 害怕说外语, 甚至逃避学习外语。外语焦虑不仅存在于课堂情境中, 也存在于社交场境中。Fischer等(2019)发现, 在社交场景中, 被试说外语时皮质醇显著高于说母语时, 体现出更高的社会应激。外语焦虑还影响双语者的第二语言的流畅性(Buchanan, Laures-Gore, & Duff, 2014)和复杂性(Saslow et al., 2014)。外语焦虑也影响人们的交流意愿, 表现为交际回避, 对人际交往内容和关系维度产生了相当大的影响(Nathalie & Jonas, 2017)。外语焦虑与个体的外语熟练程度有关。张日昇和袁利敏(2004)发现, 外语焦虑与外语成绩负相关显著, 外语成绩及格学生的外语焦虑水平显著低于不及格学生。本研究被试的外语能力自评为中等水平(英语能力自评为4.96 ± 1.51分, 口头表达能力自评为4.98 ± 1.90分, 9点评分), 当他们看到需要用外语说谎的指示时, 无疑会产生外语焦虑, 从而导致P200的波幅增加。本研究还发现, 中-英双语者在用英语说谎时与说真话时的P200波幅并无显著差异, 但用母语说谎和讲真话时的P200波幅差异显著。所以如此, 有两种可能的原因：一是外语焦虑与说谎引起的紧张情绪的相互作用。中-英双语者在用英语说谎与说真话时, 外语焦虑是主要情绪成分, 它们占用了更多的注意资源, 掩盖了由说谎引起的紧张情绪的作用; 当他们用母语说谎与说真话时, 说谎引起的紧张情绪是主要情绪成分, 此时的P200波幅差异主要由说谎引起的紧张情绪引起。二是被试在用外语说谎时, 所产生的紧张情绪远不如用母语说谎时大。
综而观之, 比起用汉语讲真话, 中-英双语者用汉语说谎、用英语说真话和用英语说谎时都更多地唤醒了焦虑情绪。这种焦虑情绪既可能是外语焦虑又可能是说谎时的紧张情绪。被试在用汉语说谎时的P200波幅显著大于用汉语说真话时, 说明被试在准备用汉语说谎时主要受说谎时的紧张情绪影响。被试用英语说真话和说谎话时的P200波幅并无明显差异, 但比起用汉语说真话和说谎话时的P200波幅更大, 说明被试在准备用英语说话时, 确实产生了外语焦虑, 但在用英语说谎时, 却并未唤起额外的来自说谎的紧张情绪, 其原因可能是人在说外语时, 对所表达内容的情绪唤醒度比说母语时更低(Caldwell-Harris, 2014; Caldwell-Harris & Ayçiçe˘gi-Dinn, 2009), 或者是因为人的认知资源有限, 主要的认知资源已经被外语焦虑情绪占据了, 说谎引起的紧张情绪就没有机会进一步增加情绪唤醒的水平。因此, 通过观察P200的波幅, 就可以发现人在说谎时会引发紧张情绪。
人在说外语时会产生外语焦虑, 人在用外语说谎时, 外语焦虑的影响要大于说谎引起的紧张情绪, 这种现象可用心理距离(psychological distance)来解释。解释水平理论(Construal Level Theory, CLT)认为, 人对事件的反应取决于心理表征(Liberman, Sagristano, & Trope, 2002)。人对客体的心理表征有不同的抽象程度, 即有不同的解释水平。高水平解释是抽象表征, 不依赖于背景信息, 包含事物的首要的、决定性的特征; 低水平解释是具体表征, 依赖于背景信息, 包括事物的次要、特有的特征(Amit, Algom, & Trope, 2009)。高水平解释决定事件的性质和意义, 低水平解释影响事件的细节和具体方面。解释水平高低又取决于人所感知到的与客体之间的心理距离(李雁晨, 周庭锐, 周琇, 2009; Trope, Liberman, & Wakslak, 2007)。心理距离是一种主观体验, 是指某物在心理上距离个体的远近程度(Trope & Liberman, 2010)。研究表明, 外语加工比母语加工会产生更大的心理距离(Shin & Kim, 2017)。因此, 双语者更倾向于冷静地决策(Costa, Foucart, Arnon, Aparici, & Apesteguia, 2014; Keysar, Hayakawa, & An, 2012)。在本研究中, 由于被试在用外语说谎时产生的心理距离比用母语说谎时更大, 因此, 他们用外语说谎时相对冷静, 因而未产生P200效应。
4.2 关于中-英双语者用母语和外语说真话和说谎时CNV差异
CNV (Contingent Negative Variation, CNV)又称为关联性负波, 产生于刺激出现后的1000~ 1500 ms之间, 是人脑对实践和刺激的觉醒、注意、定向、期待、动作准备等多种心理因素综合构成的心理负荷加重所产生的脑电成分(赵仑, 2004)。CNV产生需要特定的刺激条件：警告刺激和命令刺激。在给被试执行某一操作任务命令刺激(S2)之前, 先给予警告刺激(S1), S1即预告信号, S2为命令信号, 2个刺激之间一般相距1~2 s。因此, CNV产生的原因是对S1的期待(刘莉, 刘洪广, 刘岩, 张昱, 2007)。目前, 对执行说谎反应过程的研究主要通过控制反应类型来实现, 如指示性诚实、指示性欺骗等, 脑电证据主要来自CNV, 产生的原因是说谎反应执行过程的特殊性和实施说谎行为的心理负荷。个体在对谎言刺激进行识别和认知加工后, 需要对刺激进行权衡和抉择以做出意向判定, 即是做诚实反应还是说谎。如果被试倾向于说谎, 那么, 相对于做诚实反应, 就有一个反应准备的过程, 此时, 个体需要抑制住与诚实反应之间的冲突, 压制住诚实反应, 做好欺骗反应的准备, 因而出现了认知控制过程, 进而导致了认知负荷的增加。因此, 可以将CNV视为欺骗意向产生和反应准备的电生理指标。迄今为止, 使用CNV的测谎研究还比较少。Fang等(2003)使用面孔图片, 采用有反馈的延时反应模式, 设置了等概率的目标刺激、熟悉刺激和无关刺激, 发现CNV波幅只与反应(诚实或欺骗)有关, 与刺激属性无关。崔茜等(2009)在杀人游戏中, 亦采用延时反应范式, 发现在有反馈条件下, “杀手”对犯罪细节词语(探测刺激)的CNV明显增大, 表明CNV能够对无辜者做出有效鉴别。CNV与欺骗中的反应准备、产生意向相关。
本研究发现, 中-英双语者在说谎时的CNV波幅比说真话时更大, 说明被试在说谎时比说真话时的认知负荷更大, 这与已有研究的结果一致(崔茜 等, 2009; Sun et al., 2011; Suchotzki et al., 2015)。所以如此, 除了心理冲突理论主张的说谎比说真话存在心理意向冲突的原因外, 说谎与说真话的任务难度差异也是重要的原因(Arrieta, 2011; Walczyk, Griffith, Yates, Visconte, Simoneaux, & Harris, 2012)。本研究采用采用错误陈述范式。被试要根据屏幕上的指示, 对呈现材料进行正确或错误的陈述, 正确陈述即为说真话, 错误陈述即为说谎。正确陈述有屏幕上实验刺激的支持, 图片中的动物及颜色都是确定的, 被试只需要做出客观的口头报告而已, 其加工过程为：图片刺激→客观的口头报告; 错误陈述不仅缺乏客观的实验刺激的支持, 屏幕上呈现的图片中的动物及颜色还会引起自动加工, 占用有限的认知资源, 被试需要抑制住对屏幕上的图片的反应, 在工作记忆中搜寻其他的动物名称和颜色名称, 并且在头脑中整合成一个虚假的语言表征, 然后产生口头报告, 其加工过程为：图片刺激→对图片的自动加工→抑制住对图片的自动反应→在工作记忆中搜寻其他的动物名称和颜色名称→将搜寻到的动物名称与颜色名称结合成虚构的语言表征→虚假的口头报告。因此, 与正确陈述比, 错误陈述的加工环节多, 诸多环节均需要认知资源, 从而导致了认知负荷的陡然增加。
本研究还发现, 描述语言和诚实与否之间的交互作用显著。中-英双语者在用英语说谎时, CNV波幅比用汉语说谎时更大。这说明, 用外语说谎比用母语说谎产生了更大的认知负荷。所以如此, 是因为在用英语说谎时, 比用汉语说谎时还增加了一个将汉语表达译为英语表达的环节。因为被试的第一语言是汉语, 被试并非是熟练双语者, 其虚假陈述最初用汉语产生, 再译为英语, 其加工过程为：图片刺激→对图片的自动加工→抑制住对图片的自动反应→在工作记忆中搜寻其他的动物名称和颜色名称→将搜寻到的动物名称与颜色名称结合成虚构的汉语语言表征→将虚构的汉语语言表征译为虚构的英语语言表征→虚假的口头报告。因此, 当用英语说谎时, 中-英双语者在说谎准备阶段的认知负荷要明显高于用汉语说谎时。然而, 由于实验任务比较简单, 被试在讲真话时两种语言的认知负荷差异并不显著。
4.3 关于被试的自评分数、反应正确率和脑电反应指标的相关
本研究发现, 被试用英语说真话的正确率与英语语言能力的自评分数正相关显著, 与英语阅读理解能力、英语口头表达能力、英语组构能力的自评分数正相关显著。英语能力的自评分数越高, 被试用英语说真话的正确率就越高。这容易理解。英语能力越高, 英语就越熟练, 就越容易对刺激做出客观的口头报告。本研究还发现, 英语能力的自评分数和快速命名分数相关显著, 因此, 可以将它们作为英语熟练程度的指标, 与脑电结果做相关分析。相关分析发现, 被试在英语快速命名时用时越长, 用英语说谎时的CNV波幅就越大。可见, 英语熟练度越低的被试, 在用英语说谎时的认知负荷就越大。被试在英语快速命名用时越长, 用英语说谎时的P200波幅越大。这说明, 外语熟练程度越低的被试, 在用英语说谎时的外语焦虑也就越严重。可见, 外语熟练程度可以从认知负荷和焦虑情绪两个方面影响用外语说谎时的生理特征。
4.4 本研究的意义与启示
本研究探究中-英双语者使用母语和外语说真话和谎话的认知神经差异, 为用母语和外语说谎的认知神经差异提供了证据。同时, 分析不同时间段的脑电波幅, 对情绪唤醒度和认知负荷进行考量, 发现二者在这一过程中的作用。
本研究的结果对测谎研究具有重要启示。人在用外语说谎时, 由于存在着较高的认知负荷, 会表现出更明显的说谎特征。受外语焦虑影响, 无论是真实描述还是说谎, 被试在讲外语时都会表现出一些类似说谎的特征。因此, 人在用外语交流时, 更容易被人认为是在说谎。这种现象在外语不流利者身上表现得更加明显。相关研究也表明, 人在使用母语说谎时更容易蒙混过关, 而在使用第二语言说谎时, 却容易被识别为是在说谎(Da Silva & Leach, 2011)。这种效应被称为“谎言偏见” (lie bias)。Evans和Michael (2014)验证了谎言偏见效应。他让英语母语者和英语外语者分别用英语进行谎言和事实陈述, 并将其陈述作为实验材料令被试进行行为评价和谎言识别。参与者观看视频材料, 使用量表对视频中陈述者表现出的谎言特征(如说话的语速, 有无过度思考等)进行记录和评分。研究发现, 比起母语者的陈述, 外语者的陈述在若干维度上被评定为具有更多的谎言特征。陈述者的第二语言越流利, 发音越接近于标准发音, 就越容易被判断为说真话, 而不流利的陈述或者带有口音的陈述更可能被判断为在说谎。因此, 无论是说谎时的生理特征, 还是判断者对谎言的识别, 都可能受陈述者使用语言的影响。这种影响来自于多个方面。一方面, 母语陈述者在说谎时, 表述更流畅, 行为更自然, 更容易使人产生信任感; 另一方面, 外语陈述者在说谎时面临着说外语和说谎的双重压力, 焦虑情绪和认知负荷会更大, 会表现出更多的谎言特征。这是在测谎研究与实践中应该注意的。我国有56个民族, 除了回族与满族出现语言转用(使用汉语)外, 其他民族都有本民族语言, 汉语对他们而言是第二语言。即使同是讲汉语, 许多地区的汉族人的第一语言也不是普通话, 而是方言。张积家和张凤玲(2010)表明, 普通话和粤语是作为两种语言储存在粤语-普通话双言者的头脑中的。因此, 在测谎实践中应该考虑到双语和双言的影响。此外, 事件相关电位在测谎中的应用对P200关注较少, 本研究进一步证实了P200亦可以作为测谎的重要指标。
本研究也存在一些不足：首先, 实验室中的说谎场景生态效度有限, 难以完全还原社交场景中的说谎场景。未来研究应该更多地模拟社会情境, 增加生态效度。其次, 由于任务简单, 本研究未能够探测到语言的主效应, 未来研究可以增大任务难度, 进一步观察使用母语和外语说谎与说真话时的认知神经差异。最后, 被动说谎范式有一定局限性, 被试按照提示做真实陈述或虚假陈述, 所引起的外语焦虑程度和说谎的紧张程度可能都较低, 今后研究可进一步探寻主动说谎范式在这一领域中的使用。
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PMID:21225491
[本文引用: 2]
The cognitive and neural mechanisms leading to deception were studied by the event-related brain potential (ERP) technique. In a simulated deception situation with graded monetary incentives, participants made a decision to lie or be truthful in each trial and held their response until a delayed imperative signal was presented. Spatiotemporal principal component analysis (PCA) and source analysis revealed that brain activities dominant in the left lateral frontal area approximately 800-1,000 ms post-stimulus and over the central-frontal-parietal and right frontal areas after 1,300 ms were significantly more negative in the deceptive condition than in the truthful condition. These results suggest that two serial cognitive processes, decision making and response preparation, are related to deliberate deception.
Functional network dysfunction in anxiety and anxiety disorders
Construal-level theory of psychological distance
Construal levels and psychological distance: Effects on representation, prediction, evaluation, and behavior
DOI:10.1016/S1057-7408(07)70013-X
URL
PMID:21822366
[本文引用: 1]
Construal level theory (CLT) is an account of how psychological distance influences individuals' thoughts and behavior. CLT assumes that people mentally construe objects that are psychologically near in terms of low-level, detailed, and contextualized features, whereas at a distance they construe the same objects or events in terms of high-level, abstract, and stable characteristics. Research has shown that different dimensions of psychological distance (time, space, social distance, and hypotheticality) affect mental construal and that these construals, in turn, guide prediction, evaluation, and behavior. The present paper reviews this research and its implications for consumer psychology.
Lie detection by inducing cognitive load: Eye movements and other cues to the false answers of “witnesses” to crimes
The adaptation and validation of the foreign language classroom anxiety scale when applied to Chinese college students
外语焦虑量表(Flcas)在大学生中的测试报告
Ambiguity and the timecourse of racial perception
Math Anxiety and Strategy Utilization in Arithmetic Cognition: An ERP Study (Unpublished doctorial dissertation)
数学焦虑对算术策略运用的影响: ERP研究(博士学位论文)
Chinese-English bilinguals comparison of emotion wake-up
汉-英双语者两种语言的情绪唤醒比较
The asymmetric effect of bilingualism and diglossia on picture naming and picture classification
双语和双言对图片命名和分类的不对称影响
The determiners of picture naming latency
影响图画命名时间的因素
Research on the relationship between foreign language anxiety, self-efficacy and English performance
大学生外语焦虑、自我效能感与外语成绩关系的研究
New advances in lie detection technology
测谎技术的新进展
