《2015年中国道路交通安*蓝皮书》共四篇七章。*一篇为发展历程篇，回顾了新中国成立以来，特别是近十年来我国道路交通安*发展历程，分析了目前我国道路交通安*面临的形势、挑战与机遇；第二篇为现状热点篇，总结了2014年我国道路交通安*形势，剖析了2014～2015年道路交通安*方面的热点问题；第三篇为措施研究篇，列举了2014年我国改善道路交通安*的主要举措，介绍了道路交通安*研究的进展，并介绍了瑞典道路交通安*“零伤亡愿景”；第四篇为新技术研究篇，介绍了当前较为先进的道路交通安*新技术。另外，《2015年中国道路交通安*蓝皮书》还编录了2014年道路交通安*十大新闻、2014年一次死亡10人以上的重大道路交通事故、网络舆情精选、国际道路交通安*数据。

Communicational signals (e.g. lights and horns) are imperative for on-road interaction between drivers. The aim of the present study was to explore how these signals affect drivers' subjective appraisal and visual attention, and how drivers decode the signals from other vehicles within a variety of interactive contexts. Twenty-five male participants (20 valid samples, ranging from 21 to 29 years of age) were recruited to watch film clips of pre-designed interactive scenarios involving common vehicle signals in a full-view simulator (i.e. including road view and mirror views). Participants' attitudes towards the interacting vehicle's behaviours, emotional responses, fixation metrics, and decoded meanings were recorded and analysed. The majority of tested signals, with the exception of the horn used in the behind vehicles, significantly improved drivers' attitudes and pleasure. All signals significantly increased emotional arousal, as well as the total fixation time and mean fixation duration on the interacting vehicle. When the interacting vehicle was visible in mirrors, the signal usage significantly increased the fixation frequency towards it. Meanwhile, a significant decrease in total fixation time and mean fixation duration on the road was reported. The results also demonstrated that the decoded signal contained several meanings simultaneously depending on both the signal type and its interactive context. This study quantified the communication process via vehicular signals under typical situations involving other vehicles, and also suggested new ideas on how to establish more advanced communication between drivers.

The current study explored the influence of moral values (measured by ethical ideology) on self-reported driving anger and aggressive driving responses. A convenience sample of drivers aged 17 73years (n=280) in Queensland, Australia, completed a self-report survey. Measures included sensation seeking, trait aggression, driving anger, endorsement of aggressive driving responses and ethical ideology (Ethical Position Questionnaire, EPQ). Scores on the two underlying dimensions of the EPQ idealism (highI/lowI) and relativism (highR/lowR) were used to categorise drivers into four ideological groups: Situationists (highI/highR); Absolutists (highI/lowR); Subjectivists (lowI/highR); and Exceptionists (lowI/lowR). Mean aggressive driving scores suggested that exceptionists were significantly more likely to endorse aggressive responses. After accounting for demographic variables, sensation seeking and driving anger, ethical ideological category added significantly, though modestly to the prediction of aggressive driving responses. Patterns in results suggest that those drivers in ideological groups characterised by greater concern to avoid affecting others negatively (i.e. highI, Situationists, Absolutists) may be less likely to endorse aggressive driving responses, even when angry. In contrast, Subjectivists (lowI, HighR), reported the lowest levels of driving anger yet were significantly more likely to endorse aggressive responses. This provides further insight into why high levels of driving anger may not always translate into more aggressive driving.

The study investigated the relation between the risky driving behavior of young male drivers and their personality traits, familial attitudes and conduct in respect to road safety, intentions to drive recklessly, and driving anger. In-vehicle data recorders were used to measure the actual driving of 163 young male drivers, who also completed self-report instruments tapping traits and perceptions. Personality traits were assessed near in time to receipt of the driving license, and actual risky driving and driving-related variables were measured 9 12months after licensure to examine relatively stable driving behavior and attitudes. Findings indicate that (a) young male drivers personality traits and tendencies play a major role in predicting risky behavior; (b) intentions to drive recklessly are translated into actual behavior; and (c) the parental role is extremely relevant and counteracts risky tendencies. Moreover, the results suggest that although trait anger and driving anger both contribute to risky driving, they represent different aspects of anger. Thus, for safety interventions to be effective, they must not only teach drivers how to cope with anger-provoking driving situations, but also address underlying personality traits and environmental factors.

The present studies examined the self-validating role of anger within provoking driving situations, using a scenario method. Specifically, we predicted that one reason for why individuals higher (rather than lower) in trait driving anger are more likely to aggress when provoked is because these individuals are more confident in their thoughts resulting from the provocation. Higher thought confidence, in turn, may influence the amount of anger experienced and the extent to which the anger translates into aggressive behavior. Study 1 found that participants higher in driving anger were more confident in their thoughts in a provoking situation and their thought confidence mediated the effect of trait driving anger on anger in response to the provocation. Using a manipulation of consistency, Study 2 found that thought confidence mediated the influence of anger on aggressive driving intentions, but only for individuals higher in driving anger. The current research adds to the growing work examining a new mechanism by which emotion (e.g., anger) can affect behavior. Aggr. Behav. 39:323 334, 2013. 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The aim of this paper was to evaluate the relationship between anger (trait and driving anger) and aggressive driving. In order to test these relationships, we conducted a systematic review of the literature on anger and aggressive driving. We identified 51 eligible studies that we included in this meta-analysis. Based on previous literature, we hypothesised that: (1) there is a positive relationship between anger and aggressive driving; (2) the relationship between anger and aggressive driving behaviour differs based on whether anger is trait-based or traffic context-specific; (3) this relationship also varies depending on the type of aggressive driving; and (4) the relationship between specific anger type and aggressive driving vary according to gender, age, region where the studies were conducted and driving experience. The quantitative analysis was conducted using meta-analytic techniques. Results confirmed the fact that there is a positive relationship between anger and aggressive driving behaviour, the relationship being stronger for trait anger. Moreover, the relationship between anger and aggressive driving depends on different forms of aggressive driving, gender, age, driving experience, and the region where studies were conducted. The theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed.

Abstract This study examined the ability of attributions and personality traits to predict the emotional and behavioural components of the road rage response. Participants recalled a recent time when they experienced three different anger-provoking events when driving. They then rated their behaviours and emotions during the event, and their attributions for why the event occurred. Participants also completed a battery of personality questionnaires designed to predict their responses to the situations. Attributing causality for the anger-arousing event to a stable factor in the offending driver was uniquely related to aggressive behaviour and anger in all three situations. Hostile and blame attributions predicted aggressive behaviour and anger in different situations. In addition to dispositional measures of aggressiveness and anger predicting aggressive behaviour and anger in each of the anger-provoking situations, other personality variables were also related to aspects of the road rage response (e.g. conscientiousness, agreeableness, narcissism, and extraversion). Attributions and personality traits accounted for unique variance in the outcomes, and there were only sporadic effects of attributions partially mediating the relationships between personality variables and responses to the anger-provoking situations. Therefore, it is unlikely that the relationships between personality traits and responses to anger-provoking situations are completely mediated by attributional processing.

Purpose:In the United States, motor-vehicle crashes are the leading cause of death for individuals 18鈥24years of age. Multiple factors place young drivers at an increased risk including risky and aggressive driving behaviors. Aggressive driving has been shown to account for more than half of the driving fatalities in the United States. Driving anger is predictive of aggressive driving and adverse driving outcomes. Research outside the context of driving has demonstrated associations between multiple dimensions of forgiveness and anger, aggressive behaviors, and health outcomes. A very small body of research suggests a modest relationship between forgiveness and both driving anger and aggressive driving. The current study expands on previous research to examine the impact of multiple dimensions of forgiveness on adverse driving outcomes.Methods:Undergraduate students (N=446) completed, self-report measures of forgiveness, driving anger, driving anger expression, aggressive driving behaviors, and aversive driving outcomes.Results:Bivariate correlations indicated a significant negative relationship between each dimension of forgiveness and driving anger, driving anger expression, and aggressive driving. Forgiveness (of others and of uncontrollable situations) was found to have a significant indirect only effect on traffic violations through the mediators of driving anger and aggressive driving.Discussion: Current findings support and expand on previous research examining the association of forgiveness with adverse driving outcomes. Forgiveness of othersandforgiveness of uncontrollable situations, but not forgiveness of self, were shown to indirectly impact traffic violations/warnings, but not crashes, within the past five years through reduced driving-related anger, anger expression, and/or aggression. Implications, limitations, and future research are discussed.

This study examined data from convicted offenders in the Australian state of Victoria to examine whether the perpetrators of interpersonal violence differ between road and non-road contexts. A case ontrol methodology was used to compare data from 31 episodes of road violence with 31 episodes of violence against strangers that resulted in similar charges but which occurred in non-road contexts. Information regarding perpetrators was obtained from prosecution legal files. Psychiatric contact information was obtained from the Victorian public mental health database on both cases and controls. Although a sizeable proportion of incidents of road violence was perpetrated by persons who had not previously been criminally violent, this proportion was not significantly different from that found in the controls. The study provides support for causal models of road violence that emphasize individual traits rather than environmental factors and thus has implications for preventative strategies.

Abstract This research article examines the effects of self-regulation on adolescents' aggressive driving tendencies and their attitudes toward safe driving communication. Two experimental studies demonstrate that an individual's regulatory orientation is a good predictor of aggressive driving tendencies and that self-regulation plays a moderating role on the effects of safe driving messages on recipients' attitudes. Specifically, the findings reveal that promotion-oriented (vs. prevention-oriented) individuals are more likely to demonstrate aggressive driving tendencies. In addition, promotion-oriented individuals show more favorable attitudes toward gain-framed safe driving messages than loss-framed messages. Prevention-oriented individuals show the opposite pattern. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.

Driver anger is an important individual difference variable that has been investigated extensively for understanding driving outcomes. The Driving Anger Expression Inventory (DAX i.e., physical, verbal, use of vehicle as an aggression tool, and adaptive/constructive practices) and the Driver Behavior Questionnaire (DBQ i.e., errors, lapses, and violations) are common outcome measures for investigating how people express their anger while driving. The current study aims to conduct a meta-analytic review of other individual differences (e.g., Big Five, narcissism, impulsiveness) and several outcome variables (i.e., DAX, DBQ) associated with driving anger, measured using the driving anger scale (DAS). It synthesized information from 48 studies using the meta-analytic approach in the scope of the Contextual Mediated Model (Lajunen, 1997; S mer, 2003). The results suggested that impulsiveness, normlessness, and narcissism have stronger associations with driving anger than the Big Five personality factors. In addition, driving anger had significant associations with both the types of anger expression (i.e., physical aggression, verbal aggression) and aberrant driver behavior factors (i.e., violations, errors). Specifically, the DAS had stronger associations with the driving anger expression (DAX) factors than with the aberrant driving behavior (DBQ) factors. Moreover, the relationship between the DAS and the violations factor of the DBQ was stronger than the relationship between the DAS and the other DBQ factors. The implications of the findings for both research and practice are discussed.

ABSTRACT People have a fundamental need for positive and lasting relationships. In this article, we provide an overview of social psychological research on the topic of social acceptance and rejection. After defining these terms, we describe the need to belong and how it enabled early humans to fulfill their survival and reproductive goals. Next, we review research on the effects of social rejection on emotional, cognitive, behavioral, and biological responses. We also describe research on the neural correlates of social rejection. We offer a theoretical account to explain when and why social rejection produces desirable and undesirable outcomes. We then review evidence regarding how people cope with the pain of social rejection. We conclude by identifying factors associated with heightened and diminished responses to social rejection.

Aggressive driving is a growing problem worldwide. Previous research has provided us with some insights into the characteristics of drivers prone to aggressiveness on the road and into the external conditions triggering such behavior. Little is known, however, about the personality traits of aggressive drivers. The present study proposes planned behavior and materialism as predictors of aggressive driving behavior. Data was gathered using a questionnaire-based survey of 220 individuals from twelve large industrial organizations in Israel. Our hypotheses were tested using structural equation modeling. Our results indicate that while planned behavior is a good predictor of the intention to behave aggressively, it has no impact on the tendency to behave aggressively. Materialism, however, was found to be a significant indicator of aggressive driving behavior. Our study is based on a self-reported survey, therefore might suffer from several issues concerning the willingness to answer truthfully. Furthermore, the sampling group might be seen as somewhat biased due to the relatively high income/education levels of the respondents. While both issues, aggressive driving and the theory of planned behavior, have been studied previously, the linkage between the two as well as the ability of materialism to predict aggressive behavior received little attention previously. The present study encompasses these constructs providing new insights into the linkage between them.

112 college students participated in a study of simulated driving to investigate how trait driver aggression, state anger and coping predict risk-taking behaviors such as tailgating and frequency of passing. The simulation scenario, driving in slow traffic, elicited both anger and stress. However, consistent with the transactional model of driver stress, anger and distress were associated with different patterns of coping. Both anger and aggression were associated with dispositional confrontive coping. Drivers were afforded opportunities to pass other traffic, in risky circumstances. Dispositional coping factors, especially confrontive coping, predicted risk-taking behaviors, such as frequent passing and tailgating prior to the pass. However, trait aggression and anger did not predict risky behaviors. Confrontive drivers may have developed habitual behavioral styles that are expressed irrespective of current mood and coping strategy. The findings suggest that stress or anger management may be only a partial solution to dangerous driving in congested conditions. Further investigation of how drivers acquire confrontive behavioral styles is needed. The data also support multivariate approaches to selecting safe drivers in commercial and industrial contexts.

Abstract Speeding greatly attributes to traffic safety with approximately a third of fatal crashes in the United States being speeding-related. Previous research has identified being late as a primary cause of speeding. In this driving simulator study, a virtual drive was constructed to evaluate how time pressures, or hurried driving, affected driver speed choice and driver behavior. In particular, acceleration profiles, gap acceptance, willingness to pass, and dilemma zone behavior were used, in addition to speed, as measures to evaluate whether being late increased risky and aggressive driving behaviors. Thirty-six drivers were recruited with an equal male/female split and a broad distribution of ages. Financial incentives and completion time goals calibrated from a control group were used to generate a Hurried and Very Hurried experimental group. As compared to the control group, Very Hurried drivers selected higher speeds, accelerated faster after red lights, accepted smaller gaps on left turns, were more likely to pass a slow vehicle, and were more likely to run a yellow light in a dilemma zone situation. These trends were statistically significant and were also evident with the Hurried group but a larger sample would be needed to show statistical significance. The findings from this study provide evidence that hurried drivers select higher speeds and exhibit riskier driving behaviors. These conclusive results have possible implications in areas such as transportation funding and commercial motor vehicle safety. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

This study tested the efficacy of a cognitive-behavioral psychological intervention (CBT) targeting aggressive driving behaviors within both a court-referred ( N=20) and a self-referred community ( N=8) sample as compared to a symptom monitoring (SM) only control condition. Treatment outcome was assessed through the use of daily driving diaries, standard psychological tests, and a global rating of change scale. The CBT treatment condition improved more than the SM condition as assessed through the daily driving diaries. Although the court-referred and self-referred samples showed equivalent improvement on the driving diaries, the self-referred group improved more on measures of general anger. Standardized measures of driving anger, state anxiety and measures of general anger indicated significant change in the expected direction. Aggressive drivers who met criteria for Intermittent Explosive Disorder (IED) showed a trend to improve less than non-IED aggressive drivers. Treatment gains were maintained at the 2-month follow-up point.

The purpose of this study was to assess the psychometric properties and the factorial structure of the Driving Anger Expression Inventory (DAX) in a Chinese sample. We also explored the relationships among driving anger expression, general anger expression, and driving outcomes. Three hundred and fifty-eight drivers completed the Chinese version of the DAX, the Anger Expression Scale (AX), the Dula Dangerous Driving Index (DDDI) and a questionnaire about several types of traffic violations. A confirmatory factor analysis of the Chinese DAX yielded a four-factor solution with 20 items. This solution showed the best goodness of fit of the data and acceptable reliability. The validity of the revised DAX was also verified. The aggressive expression forms were positively correlated with dangerous driving behaviors. Using the vehicle to express anger was associated with fines. The aggressive forms were also positively correlated with general anger expression-out and negatively correlated with general anger control. The adaptive expression of anger was positively correlated with anger control but negatively correlated with dangerous driving behaviors, penalty points and fines. Furthermore, young drivers (<30years old) reported more personal and physical aggressive expressions of anger than other drivers. Gender differences were only found in some age groups. Thus, the revised DAX was confirmed to be a reliable and valuable instrument to measure forms of driving anger expression in traffic environments in China.

Speeding is a general problem in traffic and exploring factors underlying the choice of speed is an important task. In the present paper, based on data from Swedish drivers on 90 km/h roads, drivers’ attitudes towards speeding and influences from other road users on the drivers’ speed choice were investigated. Unobtrusively recorded vehicle speeds were compared with drivers’ responses to questions concerning their speed choice ( N=533). The present investigation replicates a previous study on 50 km/h roads, where a model including measures of attitudes and perceptions about others’ behaviour could explain about 15% of observed behaviour. In the present study, where a majority of the drivers observed exceeded the speed limit, a similar model could explain 41% of the variance in observed speed. Theoretical and practical implications of the results are discussed.

The present study examined the potential relationships between the 7-factor (Raskin & Terry, 1988) and 3-factor (Ackerman et al., 2011) models of narcissism and state driving anger. A total of 205 (113 women and 92 men) participants were recruited from a student population through in class announcements, on-campus posters, and word of mouth. All participants drove their regular commute and completed a state measure of anger immediately upon arrival at school while in their vehicle. As expected, regression analyses showed that, after controlling for trait driving anger, state anger was predicted by Entitlement and Superiority in the 7-factor model as well as Entitlement/Exploitativeness and Leadership/Authority in the 3-factor model. In contrast narcissistic factors that emphasize Vanity, Exhibitionism, and Grandiosity did not predict state driving anger. This suggests that anger while driving may be more a function of threats to perceived power, control, and position rather than to image and attention seeking among those higher in narcissism. These outcomes support the notion of a multidimensional approach to understanding narcissism in predicting driving anger and potentially other negative driving outcomes.

The present study examined the impact of Primacy/Recency Effects and Hazard Monitoring on driver attributions. Participants viewed a simulated near collision from the perspective of a trailing motorist. The amount of error free driving prior to the near collision varied between two groups, where the near incident occurred either early or later in their viewing experience. They were then given the opportunity to provide judgments of the offending driver based on how safe, dangerous, risky, and skilled the driver was in general, and to evaluate their overall performance. Results showed a Primacy Effect dominance in that judgments of the driver were most negative in the early group, but this was moderated by high Hazard Monitoring for ratings of “dangerous” and “safe”. This suggests that judgments of other drivers are likely to be quick and based on early information, but are impacted by personal factors such as a tendency to monitor for hazards.

Drivers experiencing rush hour congestion were interviewed using cellular telephones to study stress and coping responses. Measures were taken of each driver''s predisposition to stress (trait stress) as well as their reactions to the experience of either low or high traffic congestion (state stress). Two interviews were conducted during the trip when drivers experienced both low and high congestion conditions. Although state stress was greatest for all drivers experiencing the high congestion condition, a trait X situation interaction was obtained, indicating that stress levels were highest for high trait stress drivers experiencing the congested roadway. In terms of trait coping behaviours, participants indicated a preference for direct over indirect behaviours. A greater variety of direct and indirect behaviours were reported in high congestion. Reports of aggressive behaviours showed the greatest increase from low to high congestion. Comments on the use of cellular telephones in methodology are offered.

Driver boredom has received little research attention in efforts to develop understanding of driver behaviour and further road safety. This study aimed to develop understanding of relationships between individual differences and driver boredom as well as between driver boredom and driver behaviour. A self-report questionnaire was developed and used to gather data pertaining to individual differences, driver boredom, and driver behaviour. The sample comprised 1550 male and female drivers aged between 17 and 65+ years. The results of this study show that people who are younger, less conscientious, and less enthusiastic about driving are more likely to pose a high threat to road safety because they are more likely to suffer driver boredom. Those more enthusiastic about driving seem less likely to suffer driver boredom due to their being more engaged in the driving task. Further research should be conducted to test whether engagement in the driving task and levels of perceived stimulation therein explain relations between driver enthusiasm and driver boredom. If this is the case, intervention programmes could be developed and tested in order to encourage engagement in the driving task and so limit driver boredom.

ABSTRACT Research has found that narcissists behave aggressively when they receive a blow to their ego. The current studies examined whether narcissistic aggression could be reduced by inducing a unit relation between the target of aggression and the aggressor. Experimental participants were told that they shared either a birthday (Study 1) or a fingerprint type (Study 2) with a partner. Control participants were not given any information indicating similarity to their partner. Before aggression was measured, the partners criticized essays written by the participants. Aggression was measured by allowing participants to give their partner loud blasts of noise through a pair of headphones. In the control groups, narcissists were especially aggressive toward their partner. However, narcissistic aggression was completely attenuated, even under ego threat, when participants believed they shared a key similarity with their partner.

This paper presents an investigation into the relationships between two individual characteristics (dysfunctional impulsivity and forgiveness), negative emotions, and self-reported aggressive behaviors. Based on the general aggression model, it was hypothesized that negative emotions mediate the relationship between dysfunctional impulsivity and aggressive driving. In addition, potentially risk-reducing personality traits such as forgiveness may buffer against the effect of negative emotions on aggressive driving. Five hundred and seventy-eight drivers were asked to imagine two potentially aggression-eliciting driving scenarios and to indicate (a) the extent of hypothetically experienced negative emotions and (b) the likelihood of engaging in mild and extremely aggressive driving behaviors in the described situations. Participants also completed measures of impulsivity and trait forgiveness. The results indicated that self-reported mild and extremely aggressive forms of driving behavior were positively correlated with dysfunctional impulsivity and negatively with forgiveness. Negative affect, composed of four negative emotions (anger, hostility, nervousness, and upset), was associated with aggressive driving. An analysis of mediation revealed that negative affect partially mediated the relationship between dysfunctional impulsivity and self-reported mild aggressive acts (e.g., making a hand gesture). However, the direct effect between dysfunctional impulsivity and extremely aggressive behaviors (e.g., ramming a vehicle) in the situation of intense provocation remained statistically unchanged while accounting for negative affect. It was also found that forgiveness mitigated the influence of negative affect on aggressive behaviors, especially on extremely aggressive driving behaviors.

This study was aimed at investigating the relationship between trait forgivingness, general anger, hostility, driving anger, and self-reported aggressive driving committed by the driver him/herself (“self” scale) and perceiving him/herself as an object of other drivers’ aggressive acts (“other” scale). The Slovak version of questionnaires was administrated to a sample of 612 Slovak and Czech drivers. First, the factor structure of the Driver Anger Indicators Scale (DAIS) was investigated. Factor analyses of the self and other parts of the DAIS resulted in two factors, which were named as aggressive warnings and hostile aggression and revenge. Next, the results showed that from all dependent variables (scales of the DAIS), self-reported aggressive warnings (self) on the road were predicted best by chosen person-related factors. The path model for aggressive warnings (self) suggested that trait forgivingness and general anger were fully mediated by driving anger whereas hostility proved to be a unique predictor of aggressive behavior in traffic. Driving anger was found to be the best predictor of perceptions that other drivers behave aggressively.

In his recent article about aggressive driving, David Shinar proposed that the classical frustration-aggression hypothesis (Dollard, J., Doob, L., Miller, N., Mowrer, O. & Sears, R. (1939). Frustration and aggression . New Haven, CN: Yale University Press) provides a useful tool for understanding driver aggression (Shinar, D. (1998). Aggressive driving: the contribution of the drivers and situation. Transportation Research Part F, 1 , 137鈥160). According to Shinar's (1998) application of the frustration ggression hypothesis, driver aggression is caused by frustration because of traffic congestion and delays. In the present study, the relationships between exposure to congestion (rush-hour driving) and aggressive violations (DBQ) were investigated in Great Britain, Finland and the Netherlands. Partial correlations showed that the frequency of rush-hour driving did not correlate statistically significantly with driver aggression. Correlations between driving during rush-hour and aggression did not differ in magnitude from those between driving on country roads and aggressive violations. In addition, correlations between exposure to congestion and aggressive violations in countries with large number of vehicles per road kilometre (UK, Netherlands) were not higher than those in a sparsely populated country (Finland). These results from three countries suggest that congestion does not increase driver aggression as directly as suggested by Shinar (1998).

The last decade has seen a relative boom in the construction of central public libraries across North America. The social roles these public institutions play for society is a pressing issue in light of decreasing public funding, advancing information technologies, and an economy increasingly information-driven and decentralized. This article examines the public''s use of two of Canada''s largest central libraries, the Toronto Reference Library and the Vancouver Public Library Central Branch. The data gathered support the notion that these libraries fulfill many of the normative ideals of a successful public place and serve as important resources in the increasingly information-driven, knowledge-based economy. We conclude that private market interests encroaching upon this institution, and not advances in information technologies, represent a threat to its multifaceted role as a successful public place.

Recent research suggests that aggressive driving may be influenced by driver perceptions of their interactions with other drivers in terms of ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ behaviour. Drivers appear to take a moral standpoint on ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ driving behaviour. However, ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ in the context of road use is not defined solely by legislation, but includes informal rules that are sometimes termed ‘driving etiquette’. Driving etiquette has implications for road safety and public safety since breaches of both formal and informal rules may result in moral judgement of others and subsequent behaviours designed to punish the ‘offender’ or ‘teach them a lesson’. This paper outlines qualitative research that was undertaken with drivers to explore their understanding of driving etiquette and how they reacted to other drivers’ observance or violation of their understanding. The aim was to develop an explanatory framework within which the relationships between driving etiquette and aggressive driving could be understood, specifically moral judgement of other drivers and punishment of their transgression of driving etiquette. Thematic analysis of focus groups (n=10) generated three main themes: (1) courtesy and reciprocity, and the notion of two-way responsibility, with examples of how expectations of courteous behaviour vary according to the traffic interaction; (2) acknowledgement and shared social experience: ‘giving the wave’; and (3) responses to breaches of the expectations/informal rules. The themes are discussed in terms of their roles in an explanatory framework of the informal rules of etiquette and how interactions between drivers can reinforce or weaken a driver’s understanding of driver etiquette and potentially lead to driving aggression.

Driver aggression is an increasing concern for motorists, with some research suggesting that drivers who behave aggressively perceive their actions as justified by the poor driving of others. Thus attributions may play an important role in understanding driver aggression. A convenience sample of 193 drivers (aged 17–36) randomly assigned to two separate roles (‘perpetrators’ and ‘victims’) responded to eight scenarios of driver aggression. Drivers also completed the Aggression Questionnaire and Driving Anger Scale. Consistent with the actor–observer bias, ‘victims’ (or recipients) in this study were significantly more likely than ‘perpetrators’ (or instigators) to endorse inadequacies in the instigator’s driving skills as the cause of driver aggression. Instigators were significantly more likely attribute the depicted behaviours to external but temporary causes (lapses in judgement or errors) rather than stable causes. This suggests that instigators recognised drivers as responsible for driving aggressively but downplayed this somewhat in comparison to ‘victims’/recipients. Recipients and instigators agreed that the behaviours were examples of aggressive driving but instigators appeared to focus on the degree of intentionality of the driver in making their assessments while recipients appeared to focus on the safety implications. Contrary to expectations, instigators gave mean ratings of the emotional impact of driving aggression on recipients that were higher in all cases than the mean ratings given by the recipients. Drivers appear to perceive aggressive behaviours as modifiable, with the implication that interventions could appeal to drivers’ sense of self-efficacy to suggest strategies for overcoming plausible and modifiable attributions (e.g. lapses in judgement; errors) underpinning behaviours perceived as aggressive.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the contribution of road rage victimization and perpetration to collision involvement. METHODS: The relationship between self-reported collision involvement and road rage victimization and perpetration was examined, based on telephone interviews with a representative sample of 4897 Ontario adult drivers interviewed between 2002 and 2004. RESULTS: Perpetrators and victims of both any road rage and serious road rage had a significantly higher risk of collision involvement than did those without road rage experience. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides epidemiological evidence that both victims and perpetrators of road rage experience increased collision risk. More detailed studies of the contribution of road rage to traffic crashes are needed.

Confirmation bias, as the term is typically used in the psychological literature, connotes the seeking or interpreting of evidence in ways that are partial to existing beliefs, expectations, or a hypothesis in hand. The author reviews evidence of such a bias in a variety of guises and gives examples of its operation in several practical contexts. Possible explanations are considered, and the question of its utility or disutility is discussed.

There is a positive relationship between driving anger and near-crash or crash risk. However, it remains unclear if anger in fact contributes to traffic accidents and whether this happens due to cognitive overload or aggressive driving behaviors. This study investigated how anger affects driving behavior based on naturalistic driving data from the second Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP 2). Ten-minute trip segments were analyzed in which drivers exhibited anger with regard to driving errors, violations, and aggressive expressions. This data was compared to a matched baseline consisting of the same drivers not exhibiting anger. Results showed that anger resulted in more frequent aggressive driving behaviors but did not increase driving error frequency. Anger consequently creates danger due to deliberate behaviors rather than because of cognitive overload. In congruence with this finding, only anger triggered by threats, provocations, and frustrations increased the frequency of deliberate infringements. In contrast, anger due to having conflicts with someone on the phone or with a passenger was not linked to any type of aberrant driving behavior. Finally, severe displays of anger were accompanied by more violations as compared to slight or marked anger.

Aggressive driving has been shown to be related to increased crash risk for car driving. However, less is known about aggressive behaviour and motorcycle riding and whether there are differences in on-road aggression as a function of vehicle type. If such differences exist, these could relate to differences in perceptions of relative vulnerability associated with characteristics of the type of vehicle such as level of protection and performance. Specifically, the relative lack of protection offered by motorcycles may cause riders to feel more vulnerable and therefore to be less aggressive when they are riding compared to when they are driving. This study examined differences in self-reported aggression as a function of two vehicle types: passenger cars and motorcycles. Respondents (n=247) were all motorcyclists who also drove a car. Results were that scores for the compositedrivingaggression scale were significantly higher than on the compositeridingaggression scale. Regression analyses identified different patterns of predictors for driving aggression from those for riding aggression. Safety attitudes followed by thrill seeking tendencies were the strongest predictors fordrivingaggression, with more positive safety attitudes being protective whilst greater thrill seeking was associated with greater self-reported aggressive driving behaviour. Forridingaggression, thrill seeking was the strongest predictor (positive relationship), followed by self-rated skill, such that higher self rated skill was protective against riding aggression. Participants who scored at the 85th percentile or above for the aggressivedrivingand aggressiveridingindices had significantly higher scores on thrill seeking, greater intentions to engage in future risk taking, and lower safety attitude scores than other participants. In addition participants with the highest aggressivedrivingscores also had higher levels of self-reported past traffic offences than other participants. Collectively, these findings suggest that people are less likely to act aggressively when riding a motorcycle than when driving a car, and that those who are the most aggressive drivers are different from those who are the most aggressive riders. However, aggressive riders and drivers appear to present a risk to themselves and others on road. Importantly, the underlying influences for aggressive riding or driving that were identified in this study may be amenable to education and training interventions.

Novice motorists are at high crash risk during the first few months of driving. Risky behaviours such as speeding and driving while distracted are well-documented contributors to crash risk during this period. To reduce this public health burden, effective road safety interventions need to target the pre-driving period. We use the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) to identify the pre-driver beliefs underlying intentions to drive over the speed limit (N=77), and while over the legal alcohol limit (N=72), talking on a hand-held mobile phone (N=77) and feeling very tired (N=68). The TPB explained between 41% and 69% of the variance in intentions to perform these behaviours. Attitudes were strong predictors of intentions for all behaviours. Subjective norms and perceived behavioural control were significant, though weaker, independent predictors of speeding and mobile phone use. Behavioural beliefs underlying these attitudes could be separated into those reflecting perceived disadvantages (e.g., speeding increases my risk of crash) and advantages (e.g., speeding gives me a thrill). Interventions that can make these beliefs safer in pre-drivers may reduce crash risk once independent driving has begun.

Abstract The present study explored whether aggression, emotional regulation, cognitive inhibition, and attentional bias towards emotional stimuli were related to risky driving behavior (driving errors, and driving violations). A total of 117 applicants for taxi driver positions (89% male, M age=36.59years, SD=9.39, age range 24-62years) participated in the study. Measures included the Ahwaz Aggression Inventory, the Difficulties in emotion regulation Questionnaire, the emotional Stroop task, the Go/No-go task, and the Driving Behavior Questionnaire. Correlation and regression analyses showed that aggression and emotional regulation predicted risky driving behavior. Difficulties in emotion regulation, the obstinacy and revengeful component of aggression, attentional bias toward emotional stimuli, and cognitive inhibition predicted driving errors. Aggression was the only significant predictive factor for driving violations. In conclusion, aggression and difficulties in regulating emotions may exacerbate risky driving behaviors. Deficits in cognitive inhibition and attentional bias toward negative emotional stimuli can increase driving errors. Predisposition to aggression has strong effect on making one vulnerable to violation of traffic rules and crashes. Copyright 2017. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Background: Anger and driving have been examined in a number of studies of aggressive drivers and in drivers with road rage using various psychological and environmental study variables. However, we are not aware of any study that has examined the number of driving citations (an indication of problematic driving) and various forms of anger not related to driving.

While driver aggression is associated with crash involvement, understanding of the underlying causes of, and motivations for it is limited. To address this, the research investigated the psychological processes involved in driver aggression, focusing on how beliefs and attitudes influence the behaviour. In doing so, the research also informed the development of a model of driver aggression based on the General Aggression Model. The results suggested that driver aggression is fuelled by a desire to modify the driving behaviour of other motorists, and that it may reflect a self-fulfilling prophecy stemming from negative views regarding standards of driving behaviour.

Although driver aggression has been identified as contributing to crashes, current understanding of the fundamental causes of the behaviour is poor. Two key reasons for this are evident. Firstly, existing research has been largely atheoretical, with no unifying conceptual framework guiding investigation. Secondly, emphasis on observable behaviours has resulted in limited knowledge of the underlying thought processes that motivate behaviour. Since driving is fundamentally a social situation, requiring drivers to interpret on-road events, insight regarding these perception and appraisal processes is paramount in advancing understanding of the underlying causes. Thus, the current study aimed to explore the cognitive appraisal processes involved in driver aggression, using a conceptual model founded on the General Aggression Model (Anderson & Bushman, 2002). The present results reflect the first of several studies testing this model. Participants completed 3 structured driving diaries to explore perceptions and cognitions. Thematic analysis of diaries identified several cognitive themes. The first, ‘driving etiquette’ concerned an implied code of awareness and consideration for other motorists, breaches of which were strongly associated with reports of anger and frustration. Such breaches were considered intentional; attributed to dispositional traits of another driver, and precipitated the second theme, ‘justified retaliation’. This theme showed that drivers view their aggressive behaviour as warranted, to convey criticism towards another motorist’s etiquette violation. However, the third theme, ‘superiority’ suggested that those refraining from an aggressive response were motivated by a desire to perceive themselves as ‘better’ than the offending motorists. Collectively, the themes indicate deep-seated and complex thought patterns underlying driver aggression, and suggest the behaviour will be challenging to modify. Implications of these themes in relation to the proposed model will be discussed, and continued research will explore these cognitive processes further, to examine their interaction with person-related factors.

Aggressive driving is defined in terms of the frustration-aggression model. In that context aggressive driving is a syndrome of frustration-driven behaviors, enabled by the driver's environment. These behaviors can either take the form of instrumental aggression--that allows the frustrated driver to move ahead at the cost of infringing on other road users' rights (e.g., by weaving and running red lights)--or hostile aggression which is directed at the object of frustration (e.g., cursing other drivers). While these behaviors may be reflective of individual differences in aggression, it is argued that the exclusive focus on the characteristics of the aggressive drivers and how to control them is short-sighted. Instead, this paper proposes a multi-factor approach to the problem. Five studies conducted so far tend to support this approach, by showing that specific aggressive behaviors--such as honking and running red lights--are associated with cultural norms, actual and perceived delays in travel, and congestion. Ergonomics-oriented approaches that involve environmental modifications are proposed.

Over 2000 aggressive driving behaviors were observed over a total of 7202h at six different sites. The behaviors selected for observation were those that are commonly included in ‘aggressive driving’ lists, and they consisted of honking, cutting across one or more lanes in front of other vehicles, and passing on the shoulders. In addition, an exposure sample of 7200 drivers were also observed at the same times and places. Relative risks (RRs) and odds ratios (ODs) were calculated to show the relative likelihood that different drivers under different conditions will commit aggressive behaviors. The rate of aggressive actions observed in this study decreased from the most frequent behavior of cutting across a single lane, through honking, and to the least frequent behaviors of cutting across multiple lanes and passing on the shoulders. Relative to their proportion in the driving population, men were more likely than women to commit aggressive actions, and the differences increased as the severity of the action increased. Drivers who were 45 years old or older were less likely to drive aggressively than younger ones. The presence of passengers was associated with a slight but consistent reduction in aggressive driving of all types; especially honking at other drivers. There was a strong linear association between congestion and the frequency of aggressive behaviors, but it was due to the number of drivers on the road. However, when the value of time was high (as in rush hours), the likelihood of aggressive driving—after adjusting for the number of drivers on the road—was higher than when the value of time was low (during the non-rush weekday or weekend hours). The results have implications for driver behavior modifications and for environmental design.

Culture is increasingly recognised among traffic psychologists to be a factor influencing driving behaviour. This study examines whether a cultural background characterised by rapid social change and high levels of violence and aggression, as in the South African context, has any discernible influences on driving standards or the behaviour of individual drivers. The experiences and attitudes of young drivers in South Africa are compared with a group of young drivers from Sweden, a country whose society has exhibited high levels of stability and where road user behaviour is renowned for its restraint and compliance with regulations.The two cohorts provide information about their exposure to traffic injuries, their attitudes to other drivers and to a range of traffic offences, and to the types of behaviour they personally engage in. Among the South African respondents the notion of a declining standard of driving emerges very clearly, and specific new norms of driving are identified. Such norms are explained to be a consequence of new social values or challenges inherent within contemporary South African society. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Aggressive driving has been found to result in road collisions which are a major cause of injury, fatality and financial cost in motorised countries. Qualitative and survey based studies suggest that drivers use justifications or explanations of their aggressive driving that bear strong resemblance to Bandura’s mechanisms of moral disengagement. The aim of the current study was to explore the applicability of moral disengagement to the driving context using a purpose-adapted scale, the Driving Moral Disengagement Scale. A convenience sample of general drivers (N=294) responded to an on-line survey comprised of measures of trait anger, driving anger (DAX revised), moral disengagement and driving moral disengagement. Factor analysis allowed for reduction of the new scale from 23 items to 13 items, and this shortened Driving Moral Disengagement Scale (DMDS) had good internal reliability (Cronbach’s alpha=.83). Scree plot criteria indicated a one factor solution accounting for 34.34% of the variance. Bivariate correlations on the shortened DMDS revealed significant and positive relationships with measures of driving aggression, moral disengagement, trait anger and driving anger,r=.28–.55. Moreover the strength of the association between driving aggression and moral disengagement was greater than that with driving anger. Hierarchical regression revealed driving moral disengagement as the strongest significant predictor of driving aggression, accounting for 18% of the unique variation in the DV, and suggesting this may be a more useful predictor than driving anger. In addition, significant differences between participants’ mean scores for moral disengagement in everyday situations and their driving moral disengagement scores support the interpretation that drivers may behave differently from their ‘usual’ selves when driving, and that the driving context may encourage both greater moral disengagement and greater tendency towards aggressive responses. Chi square analysis indicated that those who scored high on driving moral disengagement were significantly more likely to report aggressive responses to driving situations than those with low driving moral disengagement scores (with a large effect size,φ=.42). This suggests that the DMDS may be useful for future driving aggression research. Implications for intervention are that aiming to alert drivers to their usual self-censure mechanisms or to prevent the tendency to moral disengagement while driving may be effective in reducing driving aggression and the risky or dangerous responses associated with it on road.

[Abstract unavailable]

Abstract Social exclusion was manipulated by telling people that they would end up alone later in life or that other participants had rejected them. These manipulations caused participants to behave more aggressively. Excluded people issued a more negative job evaluation against someone who insulted them (Experiments 1 and 2). Excluded people also blasted a target with higher levels of aversive noise both when the target had insulted them (Experiment 4) and when the target was a neutral person and no interaction had occurred (Experiment 5). However, excluded people were not more aggressive toward someone who issued praise (Experiment 3). These responseswere specific to social exclusion (as opposed to other misfortunes) and were not mediated by emotion

Within psychology, different research traditions have attempted to explain individual differences in risky driving behaviour and traffic accident involvement. The present study attempts to integrate two of these research traditions, the personality trait approach and the social cognition approach, in order to understand the mechanisms underlying young drivers' risk-taking behaviour in traffic. The study was based on a self-completion questionnaire survey carried out among 1932 adolescents in Norway. The questionnaire included measures of risk perception, attitudes towards traffic safety and self-reported risk-taking in traffic. Personality measures included aggression, altruism, anxiety and normlessness. The results of a structural equation model suggested that the relation between the personality traits and risky driving behaviour was mediated through attitudes. On this basis it was concluded that personality primarily influences risky driving behaviour indirectly through affecting the attitudinal determinants of the behaviour. Practical implications for traffic safety campaigns are also discussed.

Although trait anger has been shown to play an important role in cyberbullying, little is known about mediating and moderating mechanisms underlying this relation among young adults. Based on the integration of the general aggression model and the social-cognitive model of moral identity, the current study investigated (a) the mediating role of moral disengagement in the relation between trait anger and cyberbullying, and (b) the moderating role of moral identity in the direct and indirect relations between trait anger and cyberbullying. This model was examined with 464 Chinese young adults. Participants filled out questionnaires regarding trait anger, cyberbullying, moral disengagement, and moral identity. After gender and age were controlled, trait anger was significantly and positively associated with cyberbullying. Mediation analysis revealed that moral disengagement partially mediated the relation between trait anger and cyberbullying. Moderated mediation analysis further indicated that the direct and indirect relations between trait anger and cyberbullying were moderated by moral identity. The direct and indirect effects of trait anger on cyberbullying became non-significant for high moral identity individuals. These findings may help to design effective psychological interventions aimed at improving moral identity in young adults with higher levels of cyberbullying.

Abstract Objective: We examined the associations between three measures of hazardous driving and psychiatric factors, substance use, mental health and reports of lifetime traumatic brain injuries among a general population sample of Canadian adults. Method: Data are based on a subsample of the 2011 and 2012 CAMH Monitor telephone survey of adults aged 18 and older in the province of Ontario... [Show full abstract]

Two studies tested the applicability of Weiner's (1995, 1996, 2001, 2006) attributional model of social conduct to roadway environments. This model highlights the role of inferences of responsibility after making causal judgments for social transgressions. Study 1 employed written scenarios where participants were asked to imagine themselves driving on a major highway. The degree of controllability and intentionality of the driving act was manipulated experimentally by altering the specific event-related details provided to the participants. Study 2 extended this research to life events by having participants complete online driving diaries every 2 days, identifying their most negative/upsetting encounter with another motorist. The most anger-provoking event was selected from among 4 diary entries and participants were asked to respond to a questionnaire similar to that used in Study 1. Path analyses in both studies generally supported predictions derived from Weiner's model; the association between perceived controllability, intentionality, and dispositional locus of causality of the negative driving event and subsequent anger was mediated by perceptions of responsibility. Additional results in Study 2 suggested that low perceived controllability, intentionality, and dispositional locus of causality were associated with reduced perceived responsibility, which, in turn, facilitated feelings of sympathy. Anger was associated with aggressive responses to the offending driver, whereas sympathy was associated with prosocial responses. Recommendations were offered for improved driver safety, including the development of attributional retraining programs to combat self-serving attributional biases, teaching novice drivers about both formal and informal roadway communication, and the promotion of forgiveness among drivers

In recent years, several websites have been developed allowing drivers to post their complaints about other motorists online. These websites allow drivers to describe the nature of the offensive behaviour and to identify the offending motorist by vehicle type, colour, and license plate number. Some websites also ask drivers to list the location where the event took place and the exact date and time of the offence. The current study was a content analysis of complaints posted to RoadRagers.com between 1999 and 2007 (N=5624). The purpose of the study was to: (1) assess the research value of this novel data source; (2) demonstrate the value of content analysis to the study of driver behaviour; (3) further validate an existing coding scheme; (4) determine whether this new data source would replicate previous research findings regarding the most frequent types of driver complaints and temporal distribution of these reports; (5) provide recommendations for improved driver training and public safety initiatives based on these data. A coding scheme that was originally developed for an assessment of complaints submitted to the Ontario Provincial Police (OPP) (Wickens et al., 2005) was revised to accommodate the new dataset. The inter-rater reliability of the revised coding scheme as applied to the website complaints was very good (kappa=.85). The most frequently reported improper driver behaviours were cutting/weaving, speeding, perceived displays of hostility, and tailgating. Reports were most frequent on weekdays and during the morning and afternoon rush hour. The current study replicated several findings from the analysis of reports to the OPP, but possible differences in the sample and data collection method also produced some differences in findings. The value of content analysis to driver behaviour research and of driver complaint websites as a data source was demonstrated. Implications for driver safety initiatives and future research will be discussed.

The purpose of this study was to identify personality and individual difference measures related to driver vengeance, as measured by the Driver Vengeance Questionnaire (DVQ; Wiesenthal, Hennessy, & Gibson, 2000). There were 170 undergraduate students who completed paper-and-pencil questionnaires including the DVQ and measures of narcissism, impulsivity, and trait driver stress. A hierarchical linear regression predicting DVQ score revealed that being male (0205 = .25), narcissism (0205 = .19), and trait driver stress (0205 = .41) were significantly associated with vengeance. Impulsivity was significant in the third block of the regression but was not a significant predictor of vengeance in the final block. Interactions between gender and the individual difference measures were not significant. The final model accounted for 34% of the variance. Implications of the results and directions for future research are discussed.

The theory of social information processing, which suggests that attributions affect aggressive reactions to another person's provocative behavior, was applied to the context of driving. Respondents were 150 male drivers, who were presented with three scenarios describing frustrating driving situations caused by another driver, male or female. Hostile and non-hostile attributions, and the preference for either aggressive or non-aggressive reactions were measured for each scenario. Aggregate image of drivers as well as driving-related emotions were also measured. A path analysis showed that irritability and competitiveness mediate the relationship between aggressive reactions, on the one hand, and hostility, anxiety, and drivers' image, on the other. Hostile attributions were found to be directed more toward male than toward female drivers and were related to a negative image of drivers. The results are discussed with regard to interpersonal aspects of driving behavior.

The relationship between driving anger and negative driving outcomes, such as dangerous driving behaviors and traffic violations, has been the topic of several studies, but few studies have explored drivers’ angry thoughts when they encounter anger-provoking situations and the potential consequences of such thoughts. The purpose of this study was to investigate drivers’ angry thoughts behind the wheel and their relationship with dangerous driving behaviors. A total of 303 Chinese drivers completed the Chinese version of the Driver’s Angry Thoughts Questionnaire (DATQ), the Dula Dangerous Driving Index (DDDI) and the Driving Anger Scale (DAS). A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of the Chinese DATQ yielded a five-factor solution with 20 items that showed the best goodness of fit for the data. The brief DATQ also showed good reliability and validity. Three forms of aggressive thinking were positively correlated with dangerous driving behaviors, and coping self-instruction was negatively correlated with dangerous driving behaviors and traffic violations. More importantly, aggressive thinking mediated the effect of driving anger on dangerous driving behaviors, indicating the importance of thoughts behind the wheel. These results provide evidence supporting the development of strategies to reduce and prevent aggressive driving and accidents.