以往研究显示,动画教学的效果很可能受到学习者先前知识经验与动画速度的影响。研究选取高经验和低经验的学习者,操纵动画播放速度为快、中和慢三个水平,利用眼动仪记录学习过程中的注意,探讨学习者经验和动画速度对学习效果和注意分配的影响。结果发现,在即时测验上,学习者经验和动画速度没有交互作用;在延迟测验上,低经验者在快速下成绩优于中速;高经验者对图片注视时间长于低经验者。研究认为,在即时测验上,学习者的经验水平不会影响动画速度的教学效果;在延迟测验上,低经验者在快速呈现动画时学习效果更好,学习者经验和动画速度对学习效果的影响更可能随着时间推移体现出来;基于整体型学习材料,高经验者比低经验者更关注图片。

教育心理学领域的不流畅效应认为,学习难读材料要比学习易读材料的效果更好.已有研究主要通过操纵学习材料中的文本、画面或声音属性考察知觉流畅性在学习过程中的作用,并发现不流畅材料可能有助于缓解过度自信现象,但不一定能提高学习效果,不流畅效应的稳健性受到质疑.合理难度理论与不流畅理论均认为,知觉不流畅所引发的额外认知负荷促进了学习;相反,认知负荷理论认为这种额外认知负荷会阻碍学习.对现有研究进行元分析,结果表明,知觉不流畅既降低了学习判断的自信心(d=-0.54),也不利于提高学习效果(d=-0.36),一定程度上支持认知负荷理论.未来研究需关注知觉流畅性本身的操纵、界限及系统性评定,并探讨不流畅效应的边界条件等.

As an important form of instructional design, cueing can guide learner’s attention, organize and integrate information in multimedia learning. In this article, we reviewed researches about the cueing effect in multimedia learning environment. It was found that cueing do play an important role in attention guiding. It can direct learners to focus on specific information and ignore the irrelevant interference of information. Thus, cueing can help the learners to integrate the figure-text information and improve the learning performance. But, the current studies on cue’s function lack convincing evidence. As for the impact on learning effect, although most of the results of empirical studies are positive, the diversity and the complexity of the learning material make the conclusion still inconsistent. At present, we explained the cueing effect from two theoretical perspectives: cognitive load theory and perceptual theory. It has found that adding cues did not significantly reduce the learners’ perceived subjective cognitive load. And from the perceptual processing perspective, cueing could attract the learner’s attention and make the visual searching more easily. Future studies still need to focus on the following issues: (a) do learners perceive the cues as relevant for learning? (b) we need to pay more attention to the diversity of learning materials and the differences between different types of cues, (c) the impact of learners’ experiences, (d) how to keep the validity of cueing in the instructional design.

Text and illustrations integrated in spatial distribution could be helpful for learners’ performance during multimedia learning. In addition, recent studies showed that cues, e.g. highlighting with color, arrows, bold typeface, could guide learner’s attention and improve their learning outcomes. The researchers speculate that the picture and text close to each other can shorten the visual search time and reduce the cognitive load, thereby enhancing the learning results. Previous studies also showed that adding cues to the learning materials could guide the learners’ attention, promoted the organization and integration of the new learning knowledge. But what are the specific processes of the contiguity effect? Whether the changes of the picture-text’s location and adding cues would affect the allocation of attention? In this study, we expected that the contiguity effects and cueing would affect the learners' attention allocation, and then influence the memory tests. Consequently, the integrated text and pictures with cues would have more fixation counts and longer dwell time on the task related area, and higher scores in the retention test and transfer test. In this study, fifty one college students were recruited from Central China Normal University as the participants with prior knowledge questionnaire. And a computer-generated animation depicting the process of lightning formation was used as the experiment material. Highlighting red color on text and pictures were manipulated as cues. First of all, a demographic questionnaire including a prior knowledge questionnaire would be sent to all of the prospective participants who want to participate in the experiment. The student who could be the participants had been measured by the prior knowledge questionnaire, to ensure they knew little about the lightning knowledge. After that they were randomized into four groups. The four groups were as follows: the integrated text picture with cues, the integrated text picture without cues; the split text picture with cues; the split text picture without cues. All participants would watch the animation and learn those materials during the experiment. Eyelink 1000 was used to record their eye data. After the eye tracking data collection, they would take retention test and transfer test to test what they had learned. The results showed that the students who learned the text pictures integrated had higher scores than the text picture split group on the retention test and transfer test. And the integrated group had more run counts and longer first fixation time on the task related area (red color highlighting cues) than the split group. Besides that, as to the text, the integrated group also had longer dwell time and more fixation counts, manifested a text-oriented reading mode. Although the main effect of cues were not significant on the retention, transfer tests and eye-movement data, the interaction effect between cues and picture-text location was significant. The integrated group had more fixation counts and more run counts on the task related area when the text and pictures were cued with red color. In addition, the four groups have no difference over their gender, age, the prior knowledge. In sum, these results indicated that the contiguity effects can not only improve learners’ memorizing and understanding, but also help to allocate the attention or attention shifting during multimedia learning with the moment to moment recording. The text close to the picture can be beneficial to integrate and memorizing the information between pictures and text. What’s more, cues can make visual search process much shorter and easier when the text and illustrations are contiguous in space.

多媒体学习中的通道效应认为, 学习者对"画面+声音解说"组成的视听双通道材料的识记或理解效果要好于"画面+视觉文本"组成的视觉单通道材料,而逆转通道效应则发现了与之相反的结 果。针对以往研究缺陷,重新采用元分析技术,以保持测验和迁移测验作为结果变量,考察通道效应的稳定性。经文献检索、纳入与排除后,共获91篇符合元分析 的文献。经数据事先合并处理后,保持测验上生成94个独立效应量(8088人),迁移测验上生成83个独立效应量(6664人)。主效应检验发现:视听双 通道在保持测验(d=0.24)和迁移测验(d=0.25)上均显著高于视觉单通道;调节效应检验发现:呈现步调、画面动态性和材料时长在保持测验和迁移 测验上均对通道效应起到调节作用,通道效应主要在系统步调(d_(保持)=0.43,d_(迁移)=0.44)、动态画面(d_(保 持)=0.50,d_(迁移)=0.59)及短时材料(d_(保持)=0.38,d_(迁移)=0.33)条件下出现;所有结果均未发现逆转通道效应。结 论认为:相比视觉单通道,当图文信息以视听双通道呈现时更有利于促进学习者对多媒体学习材料的识记和理解,支持了多媒体学习认知理论;呈现步调、画面动态 性以及材料时长是通道效应的重要边界条件。

Should science learners be challenged to draw more? Certainly making visualizations is integral to scientific thinking. Scientists do not use words only but rely on diagrams, graphs, videos, photographs, and other images to make discoveries, explain findings, and excite public interest. From the notebooks of Faraday and Maxwell (1) to current professional practices of chemists (2), scientists imagine new relations, test ideas, and elaborate knowledge through visual representations (3–5).

ABSTRACT Gave study instructions to 383 college students to investigate several learning strategies. All learners except those in the read-twice control were told to study a science chapter by either writing paraphrases or drawing pictures of the material. Additionally, some learners were told to be either analytic, by focusing on details, or holistic, by relating specifics to more inclusive concepts. Individual differences were assessed in verbal ability, pictorial ability, and preference for pictorial or verbal thinking. The study instructions successfully manipulated pictorial–verbal strategies but not analytic–holistic strategies, according to self-reports and judges' ratings. Results reveal weak effects favoring the drawing strategy for males and females and the holistic strategy for females only, but there were no significant interaction effects. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Medical students have to process a large amount of information during the first years of their study, which has to be retained over long periods of nonuse. Therefore, it would be beneficial when knowledge is gained in a way that promotes long-term retention. Paper-and-pencil drawings for the uptake of form-function relationships of basic tissues has been a teaching tool for a long time, but now seems to be redundant with virtual microscopy on computer-screens and printers everywhere. Several studies claimed that, apart from learning from pictures, actual drawing of images significantly improved knowledge retention. However, these studies applied only immediate post-tests. We investigated the effects of actual drawing of histological images, using randomized cross-over design and different retention periods. The first part of the study concerned esophageal and tracheal epithelium, with 384 medical and biomedical sciences students randomly assigned to either the drawing or the nondrawing group. For the second part of the study, concerning heart muscle cells, students from the previous drawing group were now assigned to the nondrawing group and vice versa. One, four, and six weeks after the experimental intervention, the students were given a free recall test and a questionnaire or drawing exercise, to determine the amount of knowledge retention. The data from this study showed that knowledge retention was significantly improved in the drawing groups compared with the nondrawing groups, even after four or six weeks. This suggests that actual drawing of histological images can be used as a tool to improve long-term knowledge retention. Anat Sci Educ. 漏 2015 American Association of Anatomists.

Knowing how to manage one's own learning has become increasingly important in recent years, as both the need and the opportunities for individuals to learn on their own outside of formal classroom settings have grown. During that same period, however, research on learning, memory, and metacognitive processes has provided evidence that people often have a faulty mental model of how they learn and remember, making them prone to both misassessing and mismanaging their own learning. After a discussion of what learners need to understand in order to become effective stewards of their own learning, we first review research on what people believe about how they learn and then review research on how people's ongoing assessments of their own learning are influenced by current performance and the subjective sense of fluency. We conclude with a discussion of societal assumptions and attitudes that can be counterproductive in terms of individuals becoming maximally effective learners.

Linear (proportional) functions are undoubtedly one of the most common models for representing and solving both pure and applied problems in elementary mathematics education. But according to several authors, different aspects of the current culture and practice of school mathematics develop in students a tendency to use these linear models also in situations in which they are not applicable. This article reports two closely related studies about this phenomenon in 12-13 and 15-16-year old students working on word problems involving lengths and areas of similar plane figures of different kinds of shapes, as well as about the influence of drawings in breaking this improper use of linearity. Generally speaking, the results provide a convincing demonstration of the predominance of the linear model in secondary students' solutions of this kind of mensurational problem.

61High visuospatial ability fosters learning about non-human biological movements.61For low-visuospatial-ability learners (LVSAL) the results are more differentiated.61Corresponding gestures are better for LVSAL than non-corresponding gestures.61Corresponding gestures activate for LVSAL areas of the human mirror-neuron-system.61Additional neural processes of LVSAL can compensate for non-corresponding gestures.

Abstract65=65106 and 138, respectively) of third-grade students. The experiment comprised 20 lessons with 73 word problems, providing a systematic overview of the basic word problem types. Teachers of the experimental classes received a booklet containing lesson plans and overhead transparencies with different types of visual representations attached to the word problems. Students themselves were invited to make drawings for each task, and group work and teacher-led discussion shaped their beliefs about the role of visual representations in word problem solving. The effect sizes of the experiment were calculated from the results of two tests: an arithmetic skill and a word problem test, and the unbiased estimates for Cohen’s proved to be 0.20 and 0.62. There were significant changes also in experimental group students’ beliefs about mathematics. The experiment pointed to the possibility, feasibility, and importance of learning about visual representations in mathematical word problem solving as early as in grade023 (around age 9–10).

ABSTRACT In Exp I, 40 undergraduates either did or did not create a map-like representation while learning a passage. Learners who generated a map exhibited significantly greater retention than did control Ss. In Exp II, 120 undergraduates were either forced to study the map, instructed to study, or given no map prior to reading. Learners who were forced to process performed significantly better than other groups on retention measures. Ss not forced to study performed no better than the control group who received no map. Free-recall data showed that forced map study benefited learners with low vocabulary scores more than Ss with higher vocabulary scores. This was not true for multiple-choice or constructed response measures. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

This research was conducted to examine the conditions under which learner-generated illustrations serve as an instructional strategy promoting conceptual change. Specifically, the nature of students' misconceptions and the effects of student-generated descriptive drawings on conceptual understanding of scientific principles associated with the law of conservation of energy were studied. Students were randomly assigned to groups in which they copied an illustration, generated a drawing, or wrote a description about the principles. A statistically significant difference on a posttest conceptual understanding measure was found between students who generated descriptive drawings and those who wrote in a science log. Students who copied an illustration also scored higher than the writing group, but not at a significant level. Also, the quality and number of concept units present in the drawing/writing log were significantly correlated with posttest and delay test scores. Findings suggest that under certain conditions, descriptive drawing is a viable way for students to learn scientific concepts, a finding which supports the use of generative drawings as a conceptual change strategy.

Three experiments were designed to investigate children's understanding of class inclusion hierarchies and to determine whether such understanding may be related to children's ability to construct external representations for information that was hierarchical in nature. Understanding of hierarchies was studied through tasks designed to demonstrate children's ability with subset/superset classification and knowledge of asymmetric and transitive relations. Children were asked to construct their own external representations for passages containing information that could be represented hierarchically. It was hypothesized that the quality of children's external representations would be related to their ability to respond to questions related to the passages. Children's responses to questions, as well as their external representations, suggested that children as young as second grade have substantial understanding of hierarchical relations. Although the external representations were constructed in drawing, written, or structured modes, the data revealed a strong relationship between the quality of children's external representations and their performance on question tasks requiring both recognition and reasoning. Finally, children understood the relationships expressed in tree diagrams and could construct such diagrams to respond to questions. Implications of the findings, particularly as related to notetaking skills, and suggestions for further research are discussed.

ABSTRACT The major purpose of the present study was to determine if reader-generated illustrations are as effective as experimenter-provided illustrations in providing students with the ability to understand scientific explanations. In addition, the authors were interested in replicating work by R. E. Mayer and colleagues (e.g., R. E. Mayer & R. B. Anderson, 1991; R. E. Mayer & J. K. Gallini, 1990) using different texts. The authors found that students with text and illustrations and students who generated their own illustrations performed better on a problem-solving test than students with text only and that there were no significant differences in performance between the former 2 groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Two studies investigated the effectiveness of dynamic and static visualizations for a perceptual learning task (locomotion pattern classification). In Study 1, seventy-five students viewed either dynamic, static-sequential, or static-simultaneous visualizations. For tasks of intermediate difficulty, dynamic visualizations led to better classification performance than static-sequential visualizations, but not than static-simultaneous visualizations. To test whether the temporal aspects of presenting static-simultaneous visualizations (i.e., their permanent visibility) or their spatial aspects (i.e., their arrangement in rows) accounted for this effect, Study 2 investigated three additional static-simultaneous conditions. Seventy-five students viewed static-simultaneous visualizations presented either in columns, matrices, or circles. For tasks of intermediate difficulty dynamic visualizations outperformed pictures presented in columns, matrices, and circles, but not the rows format. Accordingly, for learning about locomotion patterns, dynamic visualizations are better suited than most, but not all static visualization formats. From a practical point of view, effort should be invested into the design of static-simultaneous visualizations to further optimize instructional materials.

Even though research suggests that the use of drawings could be an important part of learning science, learner-generated drawings have not received much attention in physics classrooms. This paper presents a method for recording students drawings and group discussions using tablets. Compared to pen and paper, tablets offer unique benefits, which include the recording of the whole drawing process and of the discussion associated with the drawing. A study, which investigated the use of drawings and the need for guidance among Finnish upper secondary school students, is presented alongside ideas for teachers on how to see drawing in a new light.

http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0959475211000429

The purpose of the experiment was to examine whether students better understand a science text when they are asked to self-generate summaries or to study predefined summaries. Furthermore, we tested the effects of verbal and pictorial summaries. The experiment followed a 2 x 2 design with representation mode (verbal vs. pictorial) and learning activity (self-generating vs. studying) as experimental factors. The main dependent variables were learning performance, measured by a comprehension and a transfer test, and strategy use, measured by self-report scales. Seventy-one students (Grade 10) participated in the study. The results showed that studying predefined summaries in a pictorial representation mode facilitated deep understanding. Furthermore, mediation analysis showed that the effect of representational mode was mediated by students' spatial representations of learning content. The effect of spatial representations was in turn facilitated by mental imagery activities. (c) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

This study shows that illustration is effective in learning of both simple and complex stories of both long and short length thus arguing against the hypothesis that illustration adds to cognitive load. (HOD)

ABSTRACT Reports 4 experiments examining the effects of overt illustration on 1st graders' learning from oral prose. A total of 132 Ss participated. In all experiments, Ss heard prose selections after (or during) which they illustrated selection content with plasticized figure cutouts and background scenes. Control Ss copied or colored geometric forms during the illustration period. After hearing 3 or 5 passages, Ss orally recalled passage content and answered simple factual questions about each passage. Illustration facilitated prose learning only when the S was given the correct pieces for his illustration or had the illustration done for him. When Ss selected the pieces for each illustration out of a common pool of 20-30 cutouts, illustration activity had either negative or no effect. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

One hundred and eleven 10th graders read an expository science text on the dipole character of water molecules (ca. 1600 words). Reading instruction was varied according to a 202×022 experimental design with factors ‘drawing pictures of text content on paper’ (yes, no) and ‘mentally imagining text content while reading’ (yes, no). The results indicate that drawing pictures, mediated through increased cognitive load, decreased text comprehension and, thus, learning (02=02610.37), whereas mental imagery, although decreasing cognitive load, increased comprehension only when students did not have to draw pictures simultaneously (02=020.72). No evidence was found that the effects were moderated by domain-specific prior knowledge, verbal ability, or spatial ability. The results are in line with cognitive theories of multimedia learning, self-regulated learning, and mental imagery as well as conceptions of science learning that focus on promoting mental model construction by actively visualizing the content to be learned. Constructing mental images seems to reduce cognitive load and to increase comprehension and learning outcome when the mental visualization processes are not disturbed by externally drawing pictures on paper, whereas drawing pictures seems to increase cognitive load resulting in reduced comprehension and learning outcome.

The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of imagination and learner-generated drawing on comprehension, reading time, cognitive load, and eye movements, and whether prior knowledge moderated the effects of these two strategies. Sixty-three undergraduate students participated in a pretest-posttest between-subjects study with the independent variable being the instructional strategies with three levels (learner-generated drawing vs. imagination vs. repeated reading). The results revealed that, compared to repeated reading, learner-generated drawing fostered learners' comprehension when their prior knowledge was relatively low. Moreover, when asked to read the science text after the intervention, learners who were previously engaged with imagination spent significantly more time reading the text, and fixated longer and more frequently than those in the repeated reading condition.

The perceptual and cognitive processing demands involved in comprehending complex animations can pose considerable challenges to learners. There is a tendency for learners to extract information that is highly perceptually salient but neglect less conspicuous information of crucial relevance to the building of a quality mental model. This study investigated the effectiveness of self-generated drawing for learning from an animation illustrating a scientific phenomenon, the so-called "Newton's Cradle." Participants were 199 students in grade seven, randomly assigned to three experimental conditions: self-generated drawing, traced/copied drawing, and no drawing. All participants were asked to produce an explanation of the animation for both immediate and delayed posttests. The results revealed the superiority of self-generated drawing in supporting animation comprehension at both testing times compared to the other two conditions, which did not differ from each other. In addition, comprehension of the animation was related to the quality of self-generated drawings. Specifically, the depiction of information characterized by low perceptual salience but high conceptual relevance to the phenomenon predicted comprehension and retention over time. (C) 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0959475209000206

61An event unit analysis was applied to a complex animation.61The analysis served to identify increasingly broad spatiotemporal structures.61Drawing made it difficult to understand extensive spatiotemporal structures.61Drawing might let the learners focus on visuospatial aspects of an animation.61Demonstrating a physical model might be more effective than drawing.

Abstract The drawing of visual representations is important for learners and scientists alike, such as the drawing of models to enable visual model-based reasoning. Yet few biology instructors recognize drawing as a teachable science process skill, as reflected by its absence in the Vision and Change report's Modeling and Simulation core competency. Further, the diffuse research on drawing can be difficult to access, synthesize, and apply to classroom practice. We have created a framework of drawing-to-learn that defines drawing, categorizes the reasons for using drawing in the biology classroom, and outlines a number of interventions that can help instructors create an environment conducive to student drawing in general and visual model-based reasoning in particular. The suggested interventions are organized to address elements of affect, visual literacy, and visual model-based reasoning, with specific examples cited for each. Further, a Blooming tool for drawing exercises is provided, as are suggestions to help instructors address possible barriers to implementing and assessing drawing-to-learn in the classroom. Overall, the goal of the framework is to increase the visibility of drawing as a skill in biology and to promote the research and implementation of best practices. 08 2015 K. Quillin and S. Thomas. CBE—Life Sciences Education 08 2015 The American Society for Cell Biology. This article is distributed by The American Society for Cell Biology under license from the author(s). It is available to the public under an Attribution–Noncommercial–Share Alike 3.0 Unported Creative Commons License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0).

Drawing strategies are widely used as a powerful tool for promoting students' learning and problem solving. In this article, we report the results of an inferential mediation analysis that was applied to investigate the roles that strategic knowledge about drawing and the accuracy of different types of drawings play in mathematical modelling performance. Sixty-one students were asked to create a drawing of the situation described in a task (situational drawing) and a drawing of the mathematical model described in the task (mathematical drawing) before solving modelling problems. A path analysis showed that strategic knowledge about drawing was positively related to students' modelling performance. This relation was mediated by the type and accuracy of the drawings that were generated. The accuracy of situational drawing was related only indirectly to performance. The accuracy of mathematical drawings, however, was strongly related to students' performance. We complemented the

The goal of this study was to explore two accounts for why sketching during learning from text is helpful: (1) sketching acts like other constructive strategies such as self-explanation because it helps learners to identify relevant information and generate inferences; or (2) that in addition to these general effects, sketching has more specific benefits due to the pictorial representation that is constructed. Seventy-three seventh-graders (32 girls, M = 12.82 years) were first taught how to either create sketches or self-explain while studying science texts. During a subsequent learning phase, all students were asked to read an expository text about the greenhouse effect. Finally, they were asked to write down everything they remembered and then answer transfer questions. Strategy quality during learning was assessed as the number of key concepts that had either been sketched or mentioned in the self-explanations. The results showed that at an overall performance level there were only marginal group differences. However, a more in-depth analysis revealed that whereas no group differences emerged for students implementing either strategy poorly, the sketching group clearly outperformed the self-explanation group for students who applied the strategies with higher quality. Furthermore, higher sketching quality was strongly related to better learning outcomes. Thus, the study's results are more in line with the second account: Sketching can have a beneficial effect on learning above and beyond generating written explanations; at least, if well deployed.

Does using a learner-generated drawing strategy (i.e., drawing pictures during reading) foster students' engagement in generative learning during reading? In two experiments, 8th-grade students (Exp. 1: N = 48; Exp. 2: N = 164) read a scientific text explaining the biological process of influenza and then took two learning outcome tests. In Experiment 1, students who were asked to draw pictures during reading (learnergenerated drawing group), scored higher than students who only read (control group) on a multiple-choice comprehension test (d = 0.85) and on a drawing test (d = 1.15). In Experiment 2, students in the learner-generated drawing group scored significantly higher than the control group on both a multiple-choice comprehension test (d = 0.52) and on a drawing test (d = 1.89), but students who received author-generated pictures in addition to drawing or author-generated pictures only did not. Additionally, the drawing-accuracy scores during reading correlated with comprehension test scores (r = .623, r = .470) and drawing scores (r = .620, r = .615) in each experiment, respectively. These results provide further evidence for the generative drawing effect and the prognostic drawing effect, thereby confirming the benefits of the learner-generated drawing strategy. (C) 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

In two experiments, we investigated which of the factors generation, visualization, and externalization mainly contribute to the benefits of learner-generated drawing. We also examined whether benefits of drawing were more pronounced in delayed rather than in immediate testing. To this end, Experiment 1 ( N 62=62121) focused on the comparison of the factors visualization and generation, whereas Experiment 2 ( N 62=62204) focused on the role of externalization in generative learning activities. In both experiments, participants were asked to read an expository text about biomechanics in human swimming behavior. In Experiment 1, participants were instructed either to construct drawings, to write summaries, to learn with multimedia material, or to only read. In Experiment 2, participants were instructed either to construct drawings, to mentally imagine the content, or to observe a multimedia presentation evolving gradually. Learning outcomes were measured with a recognition, transfer, and drawing test. In Experiment 1, the tests were administered immediately and after one week (within-subjects), whereas in Experiment 2 time of testing was manipulated between subjects. The results of both experiments revealed effects of experimental conditions for transfer and drawing performance, but not for recognition performance. Taken together, the findings indicate that visualization and externalization are the main contributing factors: The drawing and multimedia conditions outperformed the summary and text-only conditions (Exp. 1), thereby supporting the role of visualization, whereas the drawing and observation conditions outperformed the imagery conditions on the drawing test (Exp. 2), thereby emphasizing the role of externalization. There is little evidence that drawing constitutes a desirable difficulty.

Investigated the effects of learner-generated drawing on learning outcome. 196 9th-grade students with a mean age of 14 years were asked to read a science text about the chemistry of doing laundry for comprehension with either no additional support (control group) or under 1 of 4 experimental conditions (drawing groups). In the drawing groups, students were instructed to generate drawings representing the content of the text using a tool bar showing all relevant elements for drawing a picture. In 3 of the drawing groups, students were additionally instructed to either highlight information in the text relevant to the drawing, use a mental imagery strategy, or both. Subjects then completed 3 posttests on transfer, retention, and drawing. Results showed that subjects in the drawing groups displayed higher comprehension of the scientific text than subjects in the control condition. This is attributed to a generative effect of drawing, in which additional generative processing is fostered. Furthermore, students who produced high-quality drawings performed better on the posttests than students who produced low-quality drawings. This result is attributed to a prognostic effect of drawing, in which quality of drawing reflects quality of generative processing. It is concluded that drawing can serve as a generative and prognostic activity.

This study investigated, whether learning from science texts can be enhanced by providing learners with different forms of visualizations (pictures) in addition to text. One-hundred-two 9th and 10th graders read a computer-based text on chemical processes of washing and answered questions on cognitive load (mental effort, perceived difficulty) and comprehension (retention, transfer, drawing). Instruction varied according to a 202×022-factorial design with ‘learner-generated pictures’ (yes, no) and ‘provided pictures’ (yes, no) as factors. Results indicate positive main effects of provided pictures on all three comprehension measures and negative main effects on both cognitive load measures. Additional analyses revealed a mediation effect of perceived difficulty on retention and transfer, that is learning with provided pictures decreased cognitive load and enhanced comprehension. Furthermore, results show a positive main effect of learner-generated pictures on drawing and mental effort, but no mediation effect. Taken together, computer-based learning with provided pictures enhances comprehension as it seems to promote active processing while reducing extraneous cognitive processing. Learners, generating pictures, however, seem to have less cognitive resources available for essential and generative processing, resulting in reduced comprehension. These results are in line with cognitive load theory, cognitive theories of multimedia learning, and generative theories of learning.

Drawings are an underutilized assessment format in Human Anatomy and Physiology (HA&P), despite their potential to reveal student content understanding and alternative conceptions. This study used student-generated drawings to explore student knowledge in a HA&P course. The drawing tasks in this study focused on chemical synapses between neurons, an abstract concept in HA&P. Using two preinstruction drawing tasks, students were asked to depict synaptic transmission and summation. In response to the first drawing task, 20% of students ( n = 352) created accurate representations of neuron anatomy. The remaining students created drawings suggesting an inaccurate or incomplete understanding of synaptic transmission. Of the 208 inaccurate student-generated drawings, 21% depicted the neurons as touching. When asked to illustrate summation, only 10 students (roughly 4%) were able to produce an accurate drawing. Overall, students were more successful at drawing anatomy (synapse) than physiology (summation) before formal instruction. The common errors observed in student-generated drawings indicate students do not enter the classroom as blank slates. The error of ouching neurons in a chemical synapse suggests that students may be using intuitive or experiential knowledge when reasoning about physiological concepts. These results 1 ) support the utility of drawing tasks as a tool to reveal student content knowledge about neuroanatomy and neurophysiology; and 2 ) suggest students enter the classroom with better knowledge of anatomy than physiology. Collectively, the findings from this study inform both practitioners and researchers about the prevalence and nature of student difficulties in HA&P, while also demonstrating the utility of drawing in revealing student knowledge.

ABSTRACT Compared the effects of pictorial and written (questions) adjunct aids interspersed through text on factual recall. 63 undergraduates read 1 of the following forms of text: questions before relevant passage, questions after, pictures before, pictures after, questions and pictures before, questions and pictures after, no adjunct aids. Results show that reader-generated pictures and experimenter-provided questions were equally facilitative and resulted in increased retention over the control group. Question position effects characteristic of mathemagenic studies were replicated. Identical position effects were demonstrated for reader-generated pictures used as adjunct aids. Implications for mathemagenics and prose learning are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

2018 Royal Society of Biology Scientific drawing and writing are critical to the development of observational and recording skills in biology. However, it is unclear how the process of drawing and writing contribute to the learning of plant taxonomy. In the present study, 41 adult botanical novices studied a suite of UK native plant species using two methods: labelled drawing and descriptive writing. Tests of species identification and recognition of morphological characteristics indicated that both methods were equally effective at improving species identification. However, drawing captured significantly more morphological information about all study species than writing and was preferred by participants. The quality of drawn and written work was also evaluated and educational implications arising from these are discussed.

Do students learn more deeply from a passage when they attempt to construct their own graphic organizers (i.e., learning by doing) than when graphic organizers are provided (i.e., learning by viewing)? In 3 experiments, learners were tested on retention and transfer after reading a passage with author-provided graphic organizers or when asked to construct graphic organizers. In Experiment 1 (highest complexity), there were 27 author-provided graphic organizers or margin space for constructing graphic organizers. In Experiment 2 (intermediate complexity), there were 18 author-provided graphic organizers or 18 corresponding graphic organizer templates. In Experiment 3 (lowest complexity), there were 10 author-provided graphic organizers or 10 corresponding graphic organizer templates. On transfer, the effect size favored the author-provided group (Experiment 1: d = 0.24, ns; Experiment 2: d = 0.43, p less than 0.05; Experiment 3: d = 0.84, p less than 0.01). On retention, there were no

In this article, two intervention studies are described that were set up to investigate whether encouraging elementary students to generate drawings of arithmetic word problems facilitates problem-solving performance. The interventions consisted of 60 to 90 min of practice and showed the usefulness of self-generated drawings for solving word problems. The subjects in the first study were first and second graders, and in the second study, fifth graders. The results indicated that the fifth graders improved problem solutions after the intervention, whereas the first and second graders did not. Unlike the first and second graders, the fifth graders generated lots of drawings of word problems. The findings suggest that the nature of the difficulties children experience when solving arithmetic word problems influences their decision to generate drawings.

This special issue comprises a set of six papers, in which studies are presented that use eye tracking to analyse multimedia learning processes in detail. Most of the papers focus on the effects on visual attention of animations with different design features such as spoken vs. written text, different kinds of cues, or different presentation speeds. Two contributions concern effects of learner characteristics (prior knowledge) on visual attention when learning with video and complex graphics. In addition, in some papers eye tracking is not only used as a process measure in itself, but also as input for verbal reports (i.e., cued retrospective reporting). In the two commentaries, the contributions are discussed from a multimedia learning perspective and an eye tracking perspective, by prominent researchers in those fields. Together, the contributions to this issue give an overview of the various possibilities eye tracking opens up for research on multimedia learning and instruction.

Examines the use of drawing as a learning strategy for 5th- and 6th-grade students reading science text. Three experimental drawing conditions and a reading control tested the hypothesis that drawing is effective only when students are supported during the construction process. Results were generally consistent with the proposed hypotheses. (Contains 45 references, 5 tables, and 2 appendixes.) (GCP)

Learner-generated drawing is a strategy that can improve learning from expository text. In this paper, a model of drawing construction is proposed and the experimental design tests hypotheses derived from this model. Fourth and sixth grade participants used drawing under three experimental conditions with two conditions including varying degrees of support. On a problem solving posttest, both supported drawing groups scored higher than the non-drawing Control group. Although the grade by condition interaction was not significant, there was a strong trend in this direction. When sixth grade participants were considered independently, participants in the most supported drawing condition also obtained higher problem solving scores than those who drew without support. There were no significant condition effects for fourth grade nor were there any significant effects on a multiple-choice recognition posttest. Results were consistent with hypotheses and are discussed in light of the proposed theoretical framework.

This article explores learner-generated drawing, a strategy in which learners construct representative illustrations in support of learning goals. Both applied and empirical literature is reviewed with the purpose of stimulating research on this strategy. Clear from this review is the gap that exists between prescriptive readings on learner-generated drawing and research-based understandings. To make sense of inconsistent empirical evidence, the research review is organized around a series of hypotheses grounded in current understandings of cognitive and strategic processing. A theoretical framework for understanding the drawing strategy is proposed by extending R. E. Mayer's (1993) theoretical processes of selection, organization, and integration. The framework is intended to guide and organize future research efforts and, to that end, earlier proposed hypotheses are incorporated into the explanatory constructs of this theoretical perspective. The article concludes with a discussion of how strategy instruction might play a role in the effectiveness of the drawing strategy.

This study presents an examination of learner-generated drawing for different reading comprehension subtypes of dyslexic students and control students. The participants were 22 phonological dyslexic students, 20 orthographic dyslexic students, 21 double-deficit dyslexic students, and 45 age-, gender-, and IQ-matched control students. The major evaluation tools included word recognition task, orthographic task, phonological awareness task, and scenery texts and questions. Comparisons of the four groups of students showed differences among phonological dyslexia, orthographic dyslexia, double-deficit dyslexia, and the chronological age control groups in pre- and posttest performance of scenery texts. Differences also existed in relevant questions and the effect of the learner-generated drawing method. The pretest performance showed problems in the dyslexic samples in reading the scenery texts and answering relevant questions. The posttest performance revealed certain differences among phonological dyslexia, orthographic dyslexia, double-deficit dyslexia, and the chronological age control group. Finally, all dyslexic groups obtained a great effect from using the learner-generated drawing, particularly orthographic dyslexia. These results suggest that the learner-generated drawing was also useful for dyslexic students, with the potential for use in the classroom for teaching text reading to dyslexic students. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Online education provides the opportunity to present lecture material to students in different formats or modalities, however there is debate about which lecture formats are best. Here, we conducted four experiments with 19–68 year old online participants to address the question of whether visuals of the instructor in online video lectures benefit learning. In Experiments 1 (N = 168) and 2 (N = 206) participants were presented with a lecture in one of three modalities (audio, audio with text, or audio with visuals of the instructor). Participants reported on their attentiveness – mind wandering (MW) – throughout the lecture and then completed a comprehension test. We found no evidence of an advantage for video lectures with visuals of the instructor in terms of a reduction in MW or increase in comprehension. In fact, we found evidence of a comprehension cost, suggesting that visuals of instructors in video lectures may act as a distractor. In Experiments 3 (N = 88) and 4 (N = 109) we explored learners' subjective evaluations of lecture formats across 4 different lecture formats (audio, text, audio + text, audio + instructor, audio + text + instructor). The results revealed learners not only find online lectures with visuals of the instructor more enjoyable and interesting, they believe this format most facilitates their learning. Taken together, these results suggest visuals of the instructor potentially impairs comprehension, but learners prefer and believe they learn most effectively with this format. We refer to as the Instructor Presence Effect and discuss implications for multimedia learning and instructional design.

Cueing facilitates retention and transfer of multimedia learning. From the perspective of cognitive load theory (CLT), cueing has a positive effect on learning outcomes because of the reduction in total cognitive load and avoidance of cognitive overload. However, this has not been systematically evaluated. Moreover, what remains ambiguous is the direct relationship between the cue-related cognitive load and learning outcomes. A meta-analysis and two subsequent meta-regression analyses were conducted to explore these issues. Subjective total cognitive load (SCL) and scores on a retention test and transfer test were selected as dependent variables. Through a systematic literature search, 32 eligible articles encompassing 3,597 participants were included in the SCL-related meta-analysis. Among them, 25 articles containing 2,910 participants were included in the retention-related meta-analysis and the following retention-related meta-regression, while there were 29 articles containing 3,204 participants included in the transfer-related meta-analysis and the transfer-related meta-regression. The meta-analysis revealed a statistically significant cueing effect on subjective ratings of cognitive load (d = 610.11, 95% CI = [610.19, 610.02], p < 0.05), retention performance (d = 0.27, 95% CI = [0.08, 0.46], p < 0.01), and transfer performance (d = 0.34, 95% CI = [0.12, 0.56], p < 0.01). The subsequent meta-regression analyses showed that dSCL for cueing significantly predicted dretention for cueing (β = 610.70, 95% CI = [611.02, 610.38], p < 0.001), as well as dtransfer for cueing (β = 610.60, 95% CI = [610.92, 610.28], p < 0.001). Thus in line with CLT, adding cues in multimedia materials can indeed reduce SCL and promote learning outcomes, and the more SCL is reduced by cues, the better retention and transfer of multimedia learning.

This study explores the impact of asking middle school students to generate drawings of their ideas about chemical reactions on integrated understanding. Students explored atomic interactions during hydrogen combustion using a dynamic visualization. The generation group drew their ideas about how the reaction takes place at the molecular level. The interaction group conducted multiple experiments with the visualization by varying the amount of energy provided to ignite the reaction. The generation group integrated more ideas about chemical reactions and made more precise interpretations of the visualization than the interaction group. Embedded assessments show that generation motivated students to interpret the visualization carefully and led to more productive explanations about ideas represented in the dynamic visualization. In contrast, the interaction group was less successful in linking the visualization to underlying concepts and observable phenomena and wrote less detailed explanations. The study suggests that drawing is a promising way to help students interpret complex visualizations and integrate information. 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 48: 1177 1198, 2011

Dynamic visualizations can make unseen phenomena such as chemical reactions visible but students need guidance to benefit from them. This study explores the value of generating drawings versus selecting among alternatives to guide students to learn chemical reactions from a dynamic visualization of hydrogen combustion as part of an online inquiry unit. In prior research, generation has been more successful than selection in helping students distinguish among ideas to learn complex topics. However, selecting among perplexing alternatives may motivate learners to distinguish among ideas they might otherwise neglect. To test the value of selection for helping students distinguish ideas, this study contrasted complex selection (involving normative as well as non-normative ideas identified in prior research) from typical selection (involving images from the visualization). Results showed that all conditions improved student understanding and that typical selection was less effective than generation while complex selection was as successful as generation. In both generation and complex selection students revisited the visualization while learning, whereas revisiting was rare in typical selection. These results support the idea that distinguishing among common non-normative ideas is more valuable than distinguishing among images from the visualization. In addition, for students with low prior knowledge, both generation and complex selection had some advantages. Overall, the results suggest that students learning from complex visualizations could benefit from a combination of complex selection and generation.