Abstract: This study explored how encoding types and emotion affect temporal order memory through three experiments. Central to this investigation is the notion that while emotions heighten the recall of core event details, they often impair the memory of peripheral details and their sequence. Temporal order memory, vital for linking various memory items, is particularly vulnerable to emotional disruption. However, narrative-based stimuli, which involve storylines, appear to fortify this type of memory against negative emotions by shifting focus from inter-item associations to intra-item coherence.
Experiment 1 used picture stimuli within a 2 (encoding type: narrative encoding/discrete encoding) × 3 (emotional valence: positive/negative/neutral) mixed design. Encoding type was a between-subjects variable, with participants divided into two groups, while emotional valence was a within-subjects variable. Results showed that those in the narrative encoding group maintained stable accuracy in temporal order memory across all emotional valences. Conversely, the discrete encoding group exhibited notable declines in temporal memory accuracy when exposed to negative emotions, highlighting that narrative context can shield memory from emotional disruptions.
Experiment 2 replicated the previous findings using word stimuli, focusing on two emotional valences: neutral and negative. Similar to Experiment 1, narrative encoding proved effective in protecting temporal order memory from the detrimental effects of negative emotions. Participants again showed higher accuracy in recalling the order of words when using narrative encoding, even under negative emotional conditions, reinforcing the protective role of narrative encoding.
Experiment 3 delved deeper into the influence of narrative coherence on the efficacy of narrative encoding. Using word stimuli, a within-subject design compared high and low coherence levels under negative and neutral emotional conditions. The findings indicated that narrative coherence significantly enhances the protective effect of narrative encoding. When the narrative was coherent, participants' temporal order memory was more resilient to negative emotional interference. Conversely, low coherence narratives did not provide the same level of protection, underlining the importance of coherence in narrative-based memory encoding.
Throughout the study, we consistently demonstrated that negative emotions disrupt temporal order memory. However, narrative encoding emerged as a powerful mechanism to counteract this effect, especially when the narrative is coherent and well-constructed. These findings suggest that incorporating narrative frameworks could be an effective strategy to buffer against the impairing effects of emotions on memory functions. This has potential applications in educational and cognitive-behavioral strategies, where storytelling and structured narratives could enhance learning and information retention even in emotionally charged contexts. Overall, the study provides robust evidence that narrative encoding benefits the preservation of temporal order memory against emotional disruptions.

Key words: emotion, narrative encoding, temporal memory, episodic memory, narrative coherence