合作行为中的“眼睛效应”:解释机制与限制因素

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2020.00994

摘要/Abstract

摘要：

呈现眼睛特征的图片就能使人的行为发生变化的现象称为眼睛效应。眼睛效应存在于多种社会现象中, 合作行为中的眼睛效应已被多种实验证明, 其原理可从声誉机制、规则机制、奖惩机制及认知机制等视角予以解释。眼睛效应的发生受在场他人、任务类型、个体公众意识及群体身份、线索呈现方式等因素的限制。目前有关眼睛效应的稳定性仍存在较多争议, 未来需要从性别和文化等个体或群体差异、脑生理机制、社会应用价值等方面进行深入研究。

关键词: 合作行为, 眼睛效应, 注视眼

Abstract:

The watching-eyes effect is a phenomenon where an individual’s behavior changes in response to images depicting eyes. Multiple experiments have shown that this effect occurs during cooperative behavior. Several psychological processes can explain the watching-eyes effect, including reputation, the rule mechanism, reward and punishment, as well as various cognitive mechanisms. Additionally, some factors seem to limit the effect, including presence of others, task type, individual public consciousness, group identity, and cue (i.e., eyes image) presentation method. Currently, the stability of the watching-eyes effect remains controversial. Thus, future studies should examine individual or intergroup differences that could potentially influence stability. Notable variables include gender, culture, brain physiology, and social- application value.

Key words: cooperative behavior, watching-eyes effect, watching eyes

中图分类号:

B849:C91

吴琴, 崔丽莹. (2020). 合作行为中的“眼睛效应”:解释机制与限制因素. 心理科学进展 , 28(6), 994-1003.

WU Qin, CUI Liying. (2020). The “watching-eyes effect” in cooperative behavior: Potential mechanisms and limiting factors. Advances in Psychological Science, 28(6), 994-1003.

图/表 1

参考文献 71

[1]	窦凯, 刘耀中, 王玉洁, 聂衍刚 . (2018). "乐"于合作: 感知社会善念诱导合作行为的情绪机制. 心理学报, 50(1), 101-114.
[2]	黄璜 . (2017). 合作的逻辑: 一种演化模拟的视角. 科学出版社.
[3]	刘长江, 郝芳 . (2014). 社会困境问题的理论架构与实验研究. 心理科学进展, 22(9), 1475-1484.
[4]	易仲怡, 杨文登, 叶浩生 . (2018). 具身认知视角下软硬触觉经验对性别角色认知的影响. 心理学报, 50(7), 793-802.
[5]	张雪姣, 刘聪慧 . (2017). 亲社会行为中的“眼睛效应”. 心理科学进展, 25(3), 475-485.
[6]	周相群, 严璘璘, 王哲, 胡信奎, 许跃进 . (2018). 他人注视对不诚实行为的影响. 心理学探新, 38(4), 333-338.
[7]	Amrisha, V., Caroline, M. K., Anand, T., & Tobias, G . (2017). Attentiveness to eyes predicts generosity in a reputation- relevant context. Evolution and Human Behavior, 38(6), 729-733. doi: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2017.07.004 URL
[8]	Apanovich, V. V., Bezdenezhnykh, B. N., Sams, M., JääSkeläInen, I. P., & Alexandrov, Y . (2017). Event-related potentials during individual, cooperative, and competitive task performance differ in subjects with analytic vs. holistic thinking. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 123, 136-142. doi: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2017.10.001 URL
[9]	Axelrod, V., Bar, M., & Rees, G . (2015). Exploring the unconscious using faces. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 19(1), 35-45.
[10]	Baillon, A., Selim, A., & van Dolder, D . (2013). On the social nature of eyes: The effect of social cues in interaction and individual choice tasks. Evolution & Human Behavior, 34(2), 146-154.
[11]	Bateson, M., Callow, L., Holmes, J. R., Roche, M. L. R., & Nettle, D . (2013). Do images of `watching eyes induce behavior that is more pro-social or more normative? A field experiment on littering. PloS One, 8(12), e82055.
[12]	Bateson, M., Nettle, D., & Roberts, G . (2006). Cues of being watched enhance cooperation in a real-world setting. Biology Letters, 2(3), 412-414.
[13]	Bradley, A., Lawrence, C., & Ferguson, E . (2018). Does observability affect prosociality? Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 285(1875), 20180116.
[14]	Burkett, J. P., Andari, E., Johnson, Z. V., Curry, D. C., de Waal, F. B. M., & Young, L. J . (2016). Oxytocin-dependent consolation behavior in rodents. Science, 351(6271), 375-378. doi: 10.1126/science.aac4785 URL
[15]	Burnham, T. C., & Hare, B . (2007). Engineering human cooperation: Does involuntary neural activation increase public goods contributions? Human Nature, 18(2), 88-108. doi: 10.1007/s12110-007-9012-2 URL
[16]	Cai, W., Huang, X., Wu, S., & Kou, Y . (2015). Dishonest behavior is not affected by an image of watching eyes. Evolution and Human Behavior, 36(2), 110-116. doi: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2014.09.007 URL
[17]	Cañigueral, R., & Hamilton, A. F. D. C . (2019). Being watched: Effects of an audience on eye gaze and prosocial behaviour. Acta Psychologica, 195, 50-63.
[18]	Chudek, M., & Henrich, J . (2011). Culture-gene coevolution, norm-psychology and the emergence of human prosociality. Trends in Cognitiveences, 15(5), 218-226.
[19]	Conty, L., George, N., & Hietanen, J. K . (2016). "Watching eyes" effects: When others meet the self. Consciousness & Cognition, 45, 184-197.
[20]	Cremers, H. R., & Roelofs, K . (2016). Social anxiety disorder: A critical overview of neurocognitive research. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 7(4), 218-232.
[21]	Damien, F., Ralph, B., & Attila, S . (2012). Images of eyes enhance investments in a real-life public good. PLoS ONE, 7(5), e37397.
[22]	Dawes, R. M., & Messick, D. M . (2000). Social dilemmas. International Journal of Psychology, 35(2), 111-116.
[23]	Ekström, M . (2012). Do watching eyes affect charitable giving? Evidence from a field experiment. Experimental Economics, 15(3), 530-546. doi: 10.1007/s10683-011-9312-6 URL
[24]	Ernest-Jones, M., Nettle, D., & Bateson, M . (2011). Effects of eye images on everyday cooperative behavior: A field experiment. Evolution & Human Behavior, 32(3), 172-178.
[25]	Fehr, E., & Schneider, F . (2010). Eyes are on us, but nobody cares: Are eye cues relevant for strong reciprocity? Proceedings Biological Sciences, 277(1686), 1315-1323.
[26]	Ferran, P., Laura, B., & David, J. L . (2019). Twelve-month- old infants’ attention to the eyes of a talking face is associated with communication and social skills. Infant Behavior and Development, 54, 80-84. doi: 10.1016/j.infbeh.2018.12.003 URL
[27]	Festré, A., & Garrouste, P . (2014). Somebody may scold you! A dictator experiment. Journal of Economic Psychology, 45, 141-153. doi: 10.1016/j.joep.2014.09.005 URL
[28]	Fischbacher, U., & Gachter, S . (2010). Social preferences, beliefs, and the dynamics of free riding in public good experiments. American Economic Review, 100(1), 541-556.
[29]	Guastella, A. J., Mitchell, P. B., & Dadds, M. R . (2008). Oxytocin increases gaze to the eye region of human faces. Biological Psychiatry, 63(1), 3-5. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.06.026 URL
[30]	Haley, K. J., & Fessler, D. M. T . (2005). Nobody's watching? Subtle cues affect generosity in an anonymous economic game. Evolution & Human Behavior, 26(3), 245-256.
[31]	Hazem, N., George, N., Baltazar, M., & Conty, L . (2017). I know you can see me: Social attention influences bodily self-awareness. Biological Psychology, 124, 21-29. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2017.01.007 URL
[32]	Hilbig, B. E., Zettler, I., & Heydasch, T . (2012). Personality, punishment and public goods: Strategic shifts towards cooperation as a matter of dispositional honesty-humility. European Journal of Personality, 26(3), 245-254. doi: 10.1002/per.830 URL
[33]	Kawamura, Y., & Kusumi, T . (2017). The norm-dependent effect of watching eyes on donation. Evolution & Human Behavior, 38(5), 659-666.
[34]	Keith, D., Kevin, D., & Elaine, F . (2019). Do ‘watching eyes’ influence antisocial behavior? A systematic review & meta-analysis. Evolution and Human Behavior, 40(3), 269-280. doi: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2019.01.006 URL
[35]	Keizer, K., Lindenberg, S., & Steg, L . (2008). The spreading of disorder. Science, 322(5908), 1681-1685. doi: 10.1126/science.1161405 URL
[36]	Keller, J., & Pfattheicher, S . (2011). Vigilant self‐regulation, cues of being watched and cooperativeness. European Journal of Personality, 25(5), 363-372. doi: 10.1002/per.797 URL
[37]	Kelsey, C., Vaish, A., & Grossmann, T . (2018). Eyes, more than other facial features, enhance real-world donation behavior. Human Nature, 29(4), 390-401. doi: 10.1007/s12110-018-9327-1 URL
[38]	Kiyonari, T., Tanida, S., & Yamagishi, T . (2000). Social exchange and reciprocity: Confusion or a heuristic? Evolution & Human Behavior Official Journal of the Human Behavior & Evolution Society, 21(6), 411-427.
[39]	Krol, K. M., Monakhov, M., Lai, P. S., Ebstein, R. P., & Grossmann, T . (2015). Genetic variation in cd38 and breastfeeding experience interact to impact infants’ attention to social eye cues. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(39), 5434-5442.
[40]	Manesi, Z., van Lange, P. A. M., & Pollet, T. V . (2016). Eyes wide open: Only eyes that pay attention promote prosocial behavior. Evolutionary Psychology, 14(2), 1-15.
[41]	Matjaž, P., Jillian, J. J., David, G. R., Zhen, W., Stefano, B., & Attila, S . (2017). Statistical physics of human cooperation. Physics Reports, 687, 1-15.
[42]	Mcsweeney, F. K., & Murphy, E. S . (2000). Criticisms of the satiety hypothesis as an explanation for within-session decreases in responding. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 74(3), 347-361. doi: 10.1901/jeab.2000.74-347 URL
[43]	Mifune, N., Hashimoto, H., & Yamagishi, T . (2010). Altruism toward in-group members as a reputation mechanism. Evolution & Human Behavior, 31(2), 109-117.
[44]	Nettle, D., Harper, Z., Kidson, A., Stone, R., Penton-Voak, I. S., & Bateson, M . (2013). The watching eyes effect in the dictator game: It’s not how much you give, it’s being seen to give something. Evolution and Human Behavior, 34(1), 35-40. doi: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2012.08.004 URL
[45]	Nettle, D., Nott, K., & Bateson, M . (2012). 'Cycle thieves, we are watching you': Impact of a simple signage intervention against bicycle theft. PLoS One, 7(12), e51738. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0051738 URL
[46]	Niedenthal, P. M., Barsalou, L. W., Winkielman, P., Krauth- Gruber, S., & Ric, F . (2006). Embodiment in attitudes, social perception, and emotion. Pers Soc Psychol Rev, 9(3), 184-211.
[47]	Northover, S. B., Pedersen, W. C., Cohen, A. B., & Andrews, P. W . (2017). Effect of artificial surveillance cues on reported moral judgment: Experimental failures to replicate and two meta-analyses. Evolution and Human Behavior, 38(5), 561-571. doi: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2016.12.003 URL
[48]	Oda, R., Niwa, Y., Honma, A., & Hiraishi, K . (2011). An eye-like painting enhances the expectation of a good reputation. Evolution & Human Behavior, 32(3), 166-171.
[49]	Panagopoulos, C . (2014a). Watchful eyes: Implicit observability cues and voting. Evolution and Human Behavior, 35(4), 279-284.
[50]	Panagopoulos, C . (2014b). I've got my eyes on you: Implicit social-pressure cues and prosocial behavior. Political Psychology, 35(1), 23-33.
[51]	Pfattheicher, S., & Keller, J . (2015). The watching eyes phenomenon: The role of a sense of being seen and public self-awareness. European Journal of Social Psychology, 45(5), 560-566. doi: 10.1002/ejsp.v45.5 URL
[52]	Powell, K. L., Roberts, G., & Nettle, D . (2012). Eye images increase charitable donations: Evidence from an opportunistic field experiment in a supermarket. Ethology, 118(11), 1096-1101. doi: 10.1111/eth.2012.118.issue-11 URL
[53]	Richerson, P. J., Boyd, R. T., & Henrich, J . (2003). Cultural evolution of human cooperation. Genetic and cultural evolution of cooperation, 357-388.
[54]	Rigdon, M., Ishii, K., Watabe, M., & Kitayama, S . (2009). Minimal social cues in the dictator game. Journal of Economic Psychology, 30(3), 358-367. doi: 10.1016/j.joep.2009.02.002 URL
[55]	Rold, D. F . (2018). Defining embodied cognition: The problem of situatedness. New Ideas in Psychology, 51, 9-14. doi: 10.1016/j.newideapsych.2018.04.001 URL
[56]	Rolf, K., Burton-Chellew, M. N., Ross-Gillespie, A., & Gadagkar, W. R . (2010). Resistance to extreme strategies, rather than prosocial preferences, can explain human cooperation in public goods games. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(22), 10125-10130.
[57]	Ryo, O., Yuta, K., & Kai, H . (2015). The watching-eye effect on prosocial lying. Evolutionary Psychology, 13(3), 1-5.
[58]	Sénémeaud, C., Sanrey, C., Callé, N., Plainfossé, C., Belhaire, A., & Georget, P . (2016). The watching-eyes phenomenon and blood donation: Does exposure to pictures of eyes increase blood donation by young adults? Transfusion and Apheresis Science, 56(2), 168-170.
[59]	Servátka, M . (2010). Does generosity generate generosity? An experimental study of reputation effects in a dictator game. The Journal of Socio-Economics, 39(1), 11-17. doi: 10.1016/j.socec.2009.08.006 URL
[60]	Sparks, A., & Barclay, P . (2013). Eye images increase generosity, but not for long: The limited effect of a false cue. Evolution & Human Behavior, 34(5), 317-322.
[61]	Steinmetz, J., & Pfattheicher, S . (2017). Beyond social facilitation: A review of the far-reaching effects of social attention.Social Cognition, 35(5), 585-599. doi: 10.1521/soco.2017.35.5.585 URL
[62]	Sylwester, K., & Roberts, G . (2010). Cooperators benefit through reputation-based partner choice in economic games. Biology Letters, 6(5), 659-662.
[63]	Tane, K., & Takezawa, M . (2011). Perception of human face does not induce cooperation in darkness. Letters on Evolutionary Behavioral Science, 2, 24-27. doi: 10.5178/lebs.2011.15 URL
[64]	Thompson, S. J., Foulsham, T., Leekam, S. R., & Jones, C. R. G . (2019). Attention to the face is characterised by a difficult to inhibit first fixation to the eyes. Acta Psychologica, 193, 229-238. doi: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2019.01.006 URL
[65]	Tomasello, M., & Carpenter, M . (2010). Shared intentionality. Developmental Science, 10(1), 121-125. doi: 10.1111/desc.2007.10.issue-1 URL
[66]	Tong, F., Nakayama, K., Moscovitch, M., Weinrib, O., & Kanwisher, N . (2000). Response properties of the human fusiform face area. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 17(1-3), 257-280. doi: 10.1080/026432900380607 URL
[67]	van Lange, P. A. M., Joireman, J., Parks, C. D., & van Dijk, E . (2013). The psychology of social dilemmas: A review. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 120(2), 125-141. doi: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2012.11.003 URL
[68]	Vieider, F. M . (2011). Separating real incentives and accountability. Experimental Economics, 14(4), 507-518. doi: 10.1007/s10683-011-9279-3 URL
[69]	Vogt, S., Efferson, C., Berger, J., & Fehr, E . (2015). Eye spots do not increase altruism in children. Evolution and Human Behavior, 36(3), 224-231. doi: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2014.11.007 URL
[70]	Wahl, S., Marinović, V., & Träuble, B . (2019). Gaze cues of isolated eyes facilitate the encoding and further processing of objects in 4-month-old infants. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 36, 100621. doi: 10.1016/j.dcn.2019.100621 URL
[71]	Xin, Z., Liu, Y., Yang, Z., & Zhang, H . (2016). Effects of minimal social cues on trust in the investment game. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 19(3), 235-243. doi: 10.1111/ajsp.v19.3 URL