1 前言
在日常生活中, 看到小婴儿肉嘟嘟的脸蛋和胖乎乎的小手, 大多数人都会感觉“可爱”, 想要去摸一摸、捏一捏, 想给予他们更多的关心和照顾。近年来研究发现人们对婴儿面孔存在偏好反应, 表现为优先加工偏向(Tobias, David, & Scherer, 2007; Brosch, Sander, Pourtois, & Scherer, 2008 )、积极评价(Bressan, Bertamini, Nalli, & Zanutto, 2009)和照料意愿(Glocker et al., 2009a; Sherman, Haidt, & Coan, 2009)。关于成人对婴儿面孔的偏好反应的理论解释, 生物学家Lorenz (1943)提出“婴儿图式假说”, 该观点认为婴儿面孔的一系列典型面部特征(圆圆的脸蛋、大大的眼睛、小小的鼻子、高而突出的额头等)诱发了人们的积极情感, 进而产生相应的行为反应。例如, 成人看到婴儿面孔会不由自主地微笑(Schleidt, Schiefenhövel, Stanjek, & Krell, 1980), 在观看积极表情的婴儿面孔时, 被试的消极情绪反应减少, 而积极情绪反应增加(Baeken et al., 2010)。同时, Lorenz用“先天释放机制”来解释我们对婴儿的照料意愿, 认为这是一种本能反应。的确, 对婴幼儿信息的加工偏向与人类的生存、繁衍息息相关, 对婴幼儿信息的快速觉察、及时反馈可极大提高婴幼儿的存活率, 这有助于婴幼儿形成安全的依恋模式。因此, 研究成人对婴儿信息的注意偏好反应是对“婴儿图式假说”的拓展, 为建立早期良好的亲子关系提供理论支撑。
注意偏向是注意加工过程中, 个体选择性偏向的重要指标, 个体对特定刺激物的认知参与越多, 对该刺激的注意偏向越强(Lucion et al., 2017)。Brosch, Sander和Scherer (2007)首次运用点探测范式考察成人对婴儿面孔的注意加工偏向, 要求被试对随机出现在婴儿面孔或成人面孔后的目标刺激作按键反应。结果发现, 被试对出现在婴儿面孔后的目标刺激比成人面孔后的目标刺激反应更快, 表明与成人面孔相比, 个体对婴儿面孔存在注意偏向。后续研究也表明, 婴儿面孔注意偏向效应具有跨年龄(Sanefuji, Ohgami, & Hashiya, 2007)、跨性别(Young, Parsons, Stein, & Kringelbach, 2015)、跨文化(Esposito et al., 2014), 以及跨种族(Koda, Sato, & Kato, 2013)的一致性。
尽管大量研究证明, 因为进化上的相关性, 婴儿面孔能够被快速加工。但也有研究发现激素水平(Luo et al., 2015)、共情能力(Lehmann, Huis, & Vingerhoets, 2013)、性别气质(Ta et al., 2017)、是否独生子女(施永谋, 罗跃嘉, 2016)等方面均会影响成人对婴儿面孔的注意偏向效应。然而, 以上研究均从个体差异的角度进行探讨, 较少有研究考察婴儿面孔特征对注意偏向效应的影响, 我们并不清楚与婴儿生存息息相关的一些特征在个体加工婴儿面孔中所起的作用。对于婴儿来说, 能够吸引成人的注意, 是生存的关键。已有研究发现, 婴儿面孔特征可以引发成人的知觉反应、积极评价和照料动机, 因此, 本研究进一步探讨具体的婴儿面孔特征在成人对婴儿面孔的注意偏向效应中的影响。
“可爱”是与婴儿紧密相连的评价特征, 婴儿面孔的可爱度与婴儿图式特征密切相关, 婴儿图式特征越明显的面孔, 其获得的可爱度评价越高(Glocker et al., 2009a; Kringelbach, Stark, Alexander, Bornstein, & Stein, 2016)。随着年龄的增加, 婴儿图示特征和面孔可爱度呈逐渐下降的趋势, 成年人对于年龄更小的新生婴儿面孔的可爱度的评分显著高于幼儿面孔和成人面孔, 且婴儿面孔诱发更大的N2波幅(Alice Mado, Federica, Alberto, & Eleonora, 2011; Proverbio & de Gabriele, 2017)。其他研究也揭示了成人对高、低可爱度的婴儿面孔存在加工差异, 与观看低可爱度的婴儿面孔相比, 观看高可爱度的婴儿面孔时, 负性情绪反应显著降低(Schein & Langlois, 2015), 奖赏加工脑区(伏隔核和前扣带回)的激活更强(Glocker et al., 2009b)。同时, 婴儿面孔的可爱度也影响着成人对婴儿的偏好行为, 可爱度高的婴儿面孔会诱发更强的照料动机(Volk & Quinsey, 2002; Glocker et al., 2009a); 在观看时间上, 高可爱度的婴儿面孔获得更多的注视时间, 成人更喜欢观看高可爱度的婴儿面孔(Hildebrandt & Fitzgerald, 1978; Hahn, Debruine, & Jones, 2015)。由此可见, 高可爱度的婴儿面孔在知觉加工和偏好行为上都存在着加工优势, 那么, 成人对高可爱度的婴儿面孔的注意偏向是否也会更强呢?这是本研究想要验证的第一个研究假设。
除了可爱度之外, 面孔熟悉度是影响个体加工婴儿面孔的另一个重要因素。熟悉的婴儿面孔往往能更快地捕获注意, 并对其进行深入加工。例如, 父母在加工自己孩子的面孔时候, 会分配更多的注意(Grasso, Moser, Dozier, & Simons, 2009)、产生更快速的大脑活动(Esposito, Valenzi, Islam, Mash, & Bornstein, 2015)、负责注意和奖赏加工脑区的激活增强(Bartels & Zeki, 2004; Wittfoth-Schardt etal., 2012)。但是, 加工自己孩子的面孔除了受到面孔熟悉度的影响之外, 父母自身因素(如, 父母地位、自我相关性、情绪信息)等均会对熟悉度产生影响(Grasso et al., 2009; Yin, Fan, Lin, Sun, & Wang, 2017)。而客观熟悉度则能很好地排除情绪、过去经验等对熟悉度的影响, 通过增加陌生面孔的呈现次数, 来提高面孔在视觉上的熟悉度(Osborne & Stevenage, 2008)。并且, 客观熟悉度较高的面孔, 也能诱发我们的偏好行为。例如, 在Park, Shimojo和Shimojo (2010)的研究中, 要求被试在两张中性面孔图片中, 选择更加偏好哪一张面孔图片, 其中, 一张面孔图片是反复呈现的, 另一张面孔图片则是每次呈现都不一样的陌生面孔, 结果发现, 被试更加偏好反复呈现的熟悉的面孔。但当前婴儿面孔的熟悉度的研究都是基于父母群体进行的, 较少有研究考察客观熟悉度对婴儿面孔加工的影响。
可爱度和客观熟悉度都是影响婴儿面孔加工的重要因素, 除此之外, 婴儿面孔的可爱度可能会受到面孔熟悉度的影响。围绕成人面孔吸引力的研究发现, 当一个面孔的熟悉度增加时, 其吸引力评分也会增加。在Peskin和Newell (2004)的研究中, 将一部分面孔图片重复呈现6次, 以增加被试对这部分图片的熟悉度, 而另一部分面孔图片则不重复呈现, 在随后的测试阶段中, 研究者让被试评定所有面孔图片的吸引力。结果显示, 重复呈现的高熟悉面孔比同等吸引力的新异面孔获得更高的吸引力评分, 可见, 熟悉度可以产生吸引力(familiarity breeds attractiveness)。
但是, 在熟悉度对面孔吸引力的作用机制方面, 目前仍存在争论, 主要有以下三种假说：首先, 普遍积极转变假说(the generalized-positivity-shift account)认为, 熟悉度会普遍增加面孔的正性效价(Titchener, 1910), 也称之为“熟悉度的光环效应”, 只要是熟悉的, 吸引力的评价都会更高; 其次, 负偏态假说(the negative-skew account)认为, 熟悉度只会削弱面孔的负性效价, 即增加低吸引力面孔的吸引力, 但并不影响高吸引力面孔的吸引力(Lee, 2001); 最后, 正偏态假说(the hedonic-skew account)认为, 熟悉度只会增加面孔的正性效价, 即只增加高吸引力面孔的吸引力, 对低吸引力面孔不产生影响(Garcia-Marques, Mackie, Claypool, & Garcia- Marques, 2004; Garcia-Marques, Prada, & Mackie, 2016)。
然而, 在婴儿面孔领域, 面孔可爱度是否受客观熟悉度的影响, 婴儿面孔的可爱度随着重复次数的增加, 会产生什么样的变化, 我们并不清楚。因此, 本研究通过同时考察婴儿面孔的可爱度和客观熟悉度两个因素, 完成如下目的：(1)探讨婴儿面孔的可爱度随着客观熟悉度的增加, 会产生怎样的变化?支持哪一种理论假说; (2)探讨婴儿面孔的可爱度和客观熟悉度对注意偏向效应的影响。
综上所述, 本研究结合眼动技术, 考察面孔的可爱度和客观熟悉度对婴儿面孔注意偏向效应的影响, 分析该效应在反应时和眼动指标上的特点。为此, 以非父母群体为主, 通过主观评分区分出高、低可爱度的婴儿面孔, 采用重复曝光模式来增加面孔的客观熟悉度(Osborne & Stevenage, 2008)。基于前面综述, 我们首先假设高可爱度的婴儿面孔的注意偏向效应更强; 其次假设客观熟悉度调节可爱度在婴儿面孔注意偏向中的作用, 即随着客观熟悉度的增加, 婴儿面孔可爱度会增加, 而成人对客观熟悉度增加的婴儿面孔的注意偏向强度也会增加。
2 方法
2.1 被试
45名大学生被试(Mage = 20.5岁)参加了正式实验, 其中, 2名被试正确率低于60%, 8名被试的眼动有效试次太少, 均未纳入正式的统计分析, 有效被试35名(男生15人, 女生20人)。所有被试的视力或矫正视力正常, 无精神疾病史, 在实验后给予一定报酬。
2.2 实验材料
92张婴儿面孔图片(中性), 来自中国婴儿面孔表情图片系统(Chinese Infant Affective Face Picture System, 简称CIAFPS, 程刚, 张大均, 关雨生, 陈艳红, 2015), 由50名大学生对婴儿面孔图片的可爱度进行(1-非常不可爱, 7-非常可爱)评分, 为考察被试的评分一致性, 25%的面孔图片在评定任务中会重复出现两次。剔除评分一致性系数低于70%的被试, 根据剩余的31名被试的评分, 选取可爱度评分较高的25张婴儿面孔图片为高可爱组(M = 4.87, SD = 0.46), 选取可爱度得分较低的25张婴儿面孔图片为低可爱组(M = 3.17, SD = 0.51), 两组图片在可爱度评分上差异显著(p < 0.001), 但在情绪强度上差异不显著(M高 = 5.04, SD = 0.30; M低 = 5.16, SD = 0.25; p > 0.05); 70张成人面孔图片(中性), 取自中国情绪面孔图片库(王妍, 罗跃嘉, 2005)。为减小成人面孔图片和婴儿面孔图片的差异, 采用photoshopCS6对所有面孔图片的规格和亮度进行统一处理, 保持一致。
2.3 实验仪器与程序
实验所用仪器是Eyelinkl000眼动追踪系统(SRResearch, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada), 采样率为1000 Hz, 空间分辨率为0.1度。刺激呈现在19英寸的显示器上, 屏幕分辨率为1280×1024像素, 刷新率为85 Hz。实验过程中, 用下巴托固定被试的头部, 保持眼睛与屏幕的距离为70 cm。采用随机9点进行视线追踪校正(calibration), 当校正结果显示达到GOOD水平后, 对校正的精度进行验证(validation), 平均误差小于0.4且任何点的误差均未超出1.5, 才能结束校正过程, 进入正式实验阶段, 每个被试完成3个部分：熟悉度操纵阶段、点探测任务以及熟悉度和可爱度评定任务。
在熟悉度操纵阶段, 被试需完成婴儿面孔图片学习和再认两个任务。在婴儿面孔图片学习阶段, 选取高、低可爱度的婴儿面孔各5张, 每张面孔随机重复出现10次, 每次呈现1000 ms, 要求被试将注意力集中在屏幕上并尽量记住呈现的婴儿面孔图片。面孔学习阶段之后, 需要被试进行婴儿面孔图片再认, 检测被试是否记住了上一阶段的10张婴儿面孔, 只有正确率达90%才可进入下一阶段。
点探测任务的流程图如图1所示, 在每个试次开始前, 屏幕中央出现白色注视点“+”, 即单眼校正阶段, 保证在刺激呈现之前被试始终注视屏幕中央, 只有被试准确注视到注视点, 注视点才会消失。随后呈现1200 ms的图片刺激对(每张图片的大小为7.6 cm × 8.6 cm, 图片之间相距14.8 cm, 图片的内、外侧视角分别为12.11度和24.56度), 图片刺激消失之后, 在左侧或右侧图片位置上会立即出现探测点“●”, 当探测点出现的位置与婴儿面孔呈现的位置一致时为一致试次, 探测点出现在成人面孔位置上时为不一致试次。要求被试对探测点的位置做按键反应, 如果探测点出现在左边, 被试需要按“F”键, 如果探测点出现在右边, 则按“J”键, 2000 ms内被试没有做出按键反应, 则自动跳到下一个试次, 试次之间间隔1000 ms。点探测任务和眼动任务在同一个实验中完成, 在图片呈现的时候, 被试可以自由观看, 由于该实验要求被试盯住注视点, 因此不能采集到跟注意偏向成分有关的眼动数据。考虑到对探测点的反应的影响, 在每一种实验条件下, 对婴儿面孔和成人面孔出现的方位(左、右)与探测点出现的方位(左、右)进行了平衡。正式实验前先进入练习阶段, 保证被试熟悉点探测任务的实验流程。正式实验共160个试次, 试次间随机呈现。根据可爱度与熟悉度, 分为4种类型的图片刺激对：高可爱高熟悉婴儿面孔和中性成人面孔、高可爱低熟悉婴儿面孔和中性成人面孔、低可爱高熟悉婴儿面孔和中性成人面孔、低可爱低熟悉婴儿面孔和中性成人面孔, 每种类型的图片对各呈现40次。其中, 10张高熟悉婴儿面孔(高/低可爱度各5张), 每张重复呈现8次, 左右各4次; 40张低熟悉婴儿面孔(高/低可爱度各20张), 每张呈现两次, 左右各1次。
图1
为了确保熟悉度的操作是否有效, 及验证熟悉度是否可以提高婴儿面孔的可爱度, 在实验的最后, 要求被试对10张高熟悉度的婴儿面孔和10张低熟悉度的婴儿面孔(在可爱度、数量上与高熟悉度的婴儿面孔进行匹配)的熟悉度和可爱度进行1~7点评分(1-非常不熟悉/非常不可爱; 7-非常熟悉/非常可爱)。
3 结果
3.1 反应时数据
被试在高可爱高熟悉、高可爱低熟悉、低可爱高熟悉和低可爱低熟悉四种条件下对一致(婴儿面孔)和不一致(成人面孔)探测点的反应时如表1所示。
表1 被试对一致、不一致探测点的反应时(M ± SD, 单位: ms)
| 图片对类型 | 一致 | 不一致 | 偏向分数 | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| M | SD | M | SD | M | SD | |
| 高可爱高熟悉婴儿面孔 中性成人面孔 | 221 | 75 | 235 | 84 | 6.82 | 14.13 |
| 高可爱低熟悉婴儿面孔 中性成人面孔 | 219 | 76 | 229 | 82 | 4.84 | 12.40 |
| 低可爱高熟悉婴儿面孔 中性成人面孔 | 220 | 78 | 225 | 75 | 2.66 | 11.37 |
| 低可爱低熟悉婴儿面孔 中性成人面孔 | 226 | 79 | 223 | 79 | -1.05 | 10.53 |
参照MacLeod和Mathews (1988)提出的注意偏向分数的计算公式(反应时注意偏向分数 = [(BlDr - BrDr) + (BrDl - BlDl)] / 2, 其中B = 婴儿面孔图片, D = 探测点, l = 左, r = 右), 计算被试在不同图片对条件下对婴儿面孔的注意偏向指数。根据公式, 注意偏向分数为不一致试次的平均反应时与一致试次的平均反应时之差的一半, 如图2所示。对反应时偏向分数进行2(可爱度：高、低) × 2(熟悉度：高、低)重复测量方差分析, 结果表明, 可爱度的主效应显著, F(1, 34) = 4.73, p = 0.037, ηp2= 0.12, 高可爱度的婴儿面孔的注意偏向分数显著大于低可爱度的婴儿面孔的注意偏向分数; 熟悉度的主效应, F(1, 34) = 2.66, p > 0.05, 可爱度和熟悉度的交互作用, F(1, 34) = 0.21, p > 0.05, 均不显著。在正确率上均无显著差异, p > 0.05。
图2
3.2 眼动数据
参考已有研究(寇慧, 苏艳华, 罗小春, 陈红, 2015), 考察以下4种眼动指标：(1)首视点定向偏向分数 = 首视点出现在婴儿面孔的个数/该条件下有效试次, 该分数表示最初的注意定向偏向, 探查对婴儿面孔是否存在最初的注意定向或注意回避。当该分数大于50%, 则表明, 在注意加工早期对婴儿面孔存在定向偏向; 小于50%则表示对婴儿面孔存在注意回避。(2)首视点潜伏期偏向分数 = 婴儿面孔首视点潜伏期 - 成人面孔首视点潜伏期, 该分数反应对刺激的探测速度, 考察对婴儿面孔是否存在加速探测偏向。当该分数小于0, 表明对婴儿面孔存在加速探测偏向; 大于0则表明对婴儿面孔存在减速探测偏向。(3)首视点注视时间偏向 = 婴儿面孔首视点注视时间 - 成人面孔首视点注视时间, 该分数表示最初的注意维持, 考察对婴儿面孔最初的注意维持情况。当该分数大于0, 表明对婴儿面孔存在最初的注意维持; 小于0表示对婴儿面孔存在注意回避。(4)总注视时间偏向分数 = 注视婴儿面孔的总时间 - 注视成人面孔的总时间, 该分数表示总体的注意维持情况, 探查对婴儿面孔是否存在总体的注意维持。当该分数大于0时, 表明对婴儿面孔存在总体的注意维持; 小于0, 则表明对婴儿面孔存在总体的注意回避。基于兴趣区分析, 将婴儿图片和成人图片出现的位置分别定义为两个兴趣区。剔除错误反应试次和两个兴趣区内均无注视点的试次(剩余有效试次80.4%) (见图3)。
图3
图3
眼动指标结果：分为4种眼动指标：首视点定向偏向;首视点潜伏期偏向;首视点注视时间偏向;兴趣区注视时间偏向。柱状图误差线代表了该条件下均值的标准误。*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001。
首视点定向偏向(Direction of Eye Movement), 可爱度的主效应, F(1, 34) = 0.02, p > 0.05; 熟悉度的主效应, F(1, 34) = 1.99, p > 0.05; 以及可爱度和熟悉度的交互作用, F(1, 34) = 0.07, p > 0.05, 均未达到显著水平。单样本t检验(与0.5相比)的结果也无任何显著差异, 但低熟悉的婴儿面孔的定向偏向大于0.5, 表明对低熟悉的婴儿面孔存在注意警觉; 高熟悉的婴儿面孔的定向偏向分数小于0.5, 表明对高熟悉的婴儿面孔不存在注意警觉。
首视点潜伏期偏向(First Fixation Latency Bias), 可爱度的主效应, F(1, 34) = 3.16, p > 0.05, 熟悉度的主效应, F(1, 34) = 0.14, p > 0.05, 以及可爱度和熟悉度的交互作用, F(1, 34) = 0.63, p > 0.05, 均不显著。对4种条件下的首视点潜伏期偏向分数分别进行单样本t检验(与零相比), 并未发现任何显著差异。但高可爱高熟悉、高可爱低熟悉的婴儿面孔的潜伏期偏向小于零, 表明对高可爱的婴儿面孔存在加速探测的倾向; 低可爱高熟悉、低可爱低熟悉的婴儿面孔的潜伏期偏向大于零, 表明对低可爱的婴儿面孔存在减速探测的倾向。
首视点注视时间偏向(First Fixation Duration Bias), 可爱度的主效应不显著, F(1, 34) = 3.72, p > 0.05。熟悉度的主效应不显著, F(1, 34) = 1.62, p > 0.05。可爱度和熟悉度的交互作用显著, F(1, 34) = 4.44, p = 0.042, ηp2 = 0.12。故进行简单效应分析, 结果表明, 被试在低熟悉度条件下对高可爱度的婴儿面孔的首视点注视时间偏向显著强于低可爱度的婴儿面孔, p = 0.012。单样本t检验(与零相比)的结果表明, 对高可爱低熟悉的婴儿面孔存在早期的注意维持, t(34) = 2.84, p < 0.05; 其他条件下, 未发现显著差异。
总注视时间偏向(Total Gaze Duration Bias), 可爱度的主效应显著, F(1, 34) = 5.40, p = 0.026, ηp2 = 0.14, 高可爱度的婴儿面孔的总注视时间偏向显著大于低可爱度的婴儿面孔。熟悉度的主效应显著, F(1, 34) = 7.27, p = 0.011, ηp2 = 0.18, 低熟悉度的婴儿面孔的总注视时间偏向更强。可爱度和熟悉度的交互作用显著, F(1, 34) = 4.57, p = 0.040, ηp2 = 0.12。简单效应检验的结果表明, 高可爱度的婴儿面孔的总注视时间偏向在低熟悉度条件下显著强于低可爱度的婴儿面孔, p = 0.006。单样本t检验(与零相比)的结果表明, 对高可爱低熟悉的婴儿面孔存在总体的注意维持, t(34) = 3.25, p < 0.05; 其他条件下, 差异均不显著。
3.3 评分结果
为了确保熟悉度操作的有效性, 在正式实验之后, 让被试对经过匹配的面孔图片进行熟悉度评分, 结果表明, 可爱度的主效应显著, F(1, 34) = 25.27, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.43; 熟悉度的主效应显著, F(1, 34) = 176.66, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.84; 以及而二者的交互作用显著, F(1, 34) = 29.45, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.46。简单效应检验发现, 高、低可爱度的婴儿面孔重复呈现之后熟悉度评分都更高, F(1, 34) = 105.04, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.76, F(1, 34) = 198.38, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.85; 重复呈现的婴儿面孔当中, 高、低可爱度的婴儿面孔的熟悉度评分没有差异, F(1, 34) = 0.01, p > 0.05, 但低熟悉度的婴儿面孔中, 高可爱度的婴儿面孔的熟悉度评分更高, F(1, 34) = 38.45, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.53 (见图4)。
图4
图4
图片评分结果：实验结束之后对面孔熟悉度和可爱度的评分。柱状图误差线代表了该条件下均值的标准误。*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001。
对面孔图片的可爱度评分进行重复测量方差分析, 结果表明, 可爱度的主效应显著, F(1, 34) = 48.46, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.59; 熟悉度的主效应显著, F(1, 34) = 41.42, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.55。
4 讨论
前人研究已经证实, 与成人面孔相比, 人们对婴儿面孔存在更强的注意偏向效应(Brosch et al., 2007, 2008; Proverbio, Riva, Zani, & Martin, 2011; Thompson-Booth et al., 2014)。本研究进一步发现：在反应时偏向指数上, 高可爱度的婴儿面孔的注意偏向效应更强; 在眼动指标上, 相比于低可爱度的婴儿面孔, 对高可爱度的婴儿面孔的首注视时间和总注视时间更长, 表明对高可爱度的婴儿面孔存在注意的最初维持和总体维持; 并且, 这一效应只出现在低熟悉度条件下, 在高熟悉度条件下, 可爱度并不影响成人对婴儿面孔注意偏向强度。
4.1 个体对高可爱度婴儿面孔的反应时偏向更强
反应时偏向指数的结果指出, 成人对高可爱的婴儿面孔的注意偏向效应更强, 可爱的婴儿面孔能更加快速地捕获我们的注意。与成人面孔的吸引力研究结论一致, 高吸引力的面孔能捕获更强的空间注意, 即使面孔吸引力与当前任务无关, 依然能对面孔的吸引力进行自动加工, 进而调节空间注意分配(Sui & Liu, 2009)。本研究中, 在反应时偏向上, 当探测点出现在高可爱度的婴儿面孔后, 被试的反应时更短, 表明高可爱度的婴儿面孔捕获注意的能力更强。的确, 可爱的婴儿面孔具有诸多的加工优势。例如, 对可爱的婴儿面孔产生积极的情绪体验(Hildebrandt & Fitzgerald, 1978)和更强的照料动机(Glocker et al., 2009a; Volk & Quinsey, 2002); 具有可爱特质的婴儿面孔和声音还可以诱发更快的神经反应(Kringelbach et al., 2008; Kringelbach et al., 2016; Parsons et al., 2014)。进化的观点认为, 我们对美、吸引力的偏好是与生俱来的, 从婴儿开始, 我们就对高吸引力的面孔更加偏好, 注视时间更长(Damon et al., 2017)。
在反应时和眼动指标上, 本研究并未发现一致的结论：眼动指标的结果表明, 在低熟悉度条件下, 高可爱度的婴儿面孔的注意维持效应更强, 而在反应时上, 高可爱度的婴儿面孔的注意偏向效应更强、更快的探测速度, 并不受熟悉度的影响。反应时代表的是反应输出所需的时间, 既包括知觉加工阶段, 也包括反应选择阶段, 而眼动指标体现视知觉加工的过程。二者的差异可能说明对熟悉度的加工更多地依靠视知觉层面进行, 对低熟悉度的可爱婴儿面孔的注视时间更长, 表明个体需要对低熟悉度的可爱婴儿面孔给予更多的注意资源。此外, 当前研究的点探测结果并未发现显著的注意偏向效应, 即一致条件和不一致条件的差异(或注意偏向分数大于0)。Mogg, Bradley, Miles和Dixon (2004)的研究表明, 当威胁刺激的持续时间为500 ms时, 焦虑个体会对该威胁刺激表现出注意偏向然而当威胁刺激的时间变为1500 ms时, 则没有这种对威胁刺激的注意偏向。有研究者提出, 随着刺激持续时间的不同, 个体的注意偏向过程也会不同。当刺激持续时间只有500 ms时, 个体的注意过程可能是“定向、维持”等; 然而当刺激的持续时间变长之后, 个体的注意过程也会发生改变, 如“注意解除” (王海涛, 黄珊珊, 黄月胜, 孙孝游, 郑希付, 2012)。因此, 本研究中未能发现可爱面孔的注意偏向效应, 可能与该研究中点探测刺激的持续时间有关。
4.2 在低熟悉度条件下, 可爱度影响个体对婴儿面孔的注意维持效应
在眼动指标上, 高可爱度的婴儿面孔的首注视时间偏向和总注视时间偏向更强, 表现为注意维持模式, 并且, 这一效应只出现在低熟悉度条件下。
首先, 在首视点偏向和首视点潜伏期偏向上, 并没有发现可爱度对婴儿面孔注意偏向效应的影响, 即高、低可爱度的婴儿面孔在早期的注意定向和注意警觉上无显著差异。已有研究揭示, 那些对生存具有危害的事物(如蛇和蜘蛛)和社会性的威胁刺激(生气或愤怒的面孔), 往往会引起个体的注意定向和警觉(Lipp, 2006; Vuilleumier, 2005)。而在本研究中使用的均是中性面孔图片, 并且, 个体倾向于将婴儿面孔看成是与正性情绪体验相连的积极刺激(Senese et al., 2013), 所以, 尽管是低可爱度的婴儿面孔, 依然不会引发注意定向或警觉。
其次, 在首视点注视时间和总注视时间上, 高可爱度的婴儿面孔表现出显著更强的注视时间偏向, 在注意的早期阶段和总体阶段, 都存在对高可爱度的婴儿面孔的注意维持。与以往的研究结论一致, 对婴儿面孔的观看时长会受到可爱度的影响, 观看可爱度评分高的婴儿面孔的时间长于观看可爱度评分低的婴儿面孔的时间(Hildebrandt & Fitzgerald, 1978; Hahn, Xiao, Sprengelmeyer, & Perrett, 2013; Sprengelmeyer, Lewis, Hahn, & Perrett, 2013)。在解释高可爱度的婴儿面孔获得更多注视时间的机制上, Hahn等(2015)指出成人对高可爱度的婴儿面孔的注视时间更长, 更喜欢看可爱的婴儿面孔, 可能是因为观看高可爱度的婴儿面孔获得的奖赏属性更高, 表现为眶额皮层和伏隔核的激活增强(Glocker et al., 2009b)。正因为如此, 人们愿意投入更多的努力去观看高可爱度的婴儿面孔(Hahn et al., 2013)。综上, 可爱度影响成人对婴儿面孔的注意偏向效应, 主要表现为注意维持模式, 对高可爱度的婴儿面孔的注视时间偏向更强。
研究结果还显示, 成人对高可爱度婴儿面孔的注意维持模式只出现在低熟悉度条件下; 在高熟悉度条件下, 高可爱度和低可爱度的婴儿面孔的注意维持效应没有显著差异。这表明, 在不同熟悉度条件下, 可爱度对婴儿面孔注意维持效应的作用机制并不一致。首先, 从面孔加工的角度来说, 可能是因为对重复出现的熟悉面孔产生了“重复抑制”效应, 众所周知, 新异面孔比熟悉面孔在物理属性上更加凸显, 视觉上的熟悉度会减弱梭状回和杏仁核的激活(Gobbini & Haxby, 2006; Jasmin, Tianyi, & Joshua, 2014), 导致对低熟悉度的婴儿面孔投入更多的注意资源。例如, Leibenluft, Gobbini, Harrison和Haxby (2004)的研究发现, 对熟悉的婴儿面孔加工存在适应性。当母亲观看熟悉的儿童面孔时, 相对于陌生儿童, 在右侧梭状回、左侧杏仁核、右侧枕中回等区域表现出更低的激活水平, 与对成人熟悉面孔的适应性加工时大脑活动减弱的区域一致。此外, Zebrowitz和Zhang (2012)的研究中, 将面孔图片以100 ms的时间重复呈现10次, 发现个体对曝光过的面孔或者相类似的异族面孔加工时, 与负性情绪加工有关的脑区外侧眶额皮质(lateral orbital frontal cortex, LOFC)的激活水平下降, 而在奖赏回路和积极情绪加工的脑区(medial orbitalfrontal cortex, MOFC), 并未发现显著的激活增强效应, 表明, 个体对重复曝光过的刺激的喜爱度增加是通过重复抑制起作用的, 并非重复增强。但是, 对重复呈现的熟悉面孔的神经反应也有增强的结果(Henson, Shallice, & Dolan, 2000; Leveroni et al., 2000), 由于对熟悉度的操纵和实验任务的差异, 导致对记忆和注意等认知加工的要求不一致, 可能出现矛盾的结果(Gobbini & Haxby, 2006)。
本研究中, 在学习阶段将每张面孔图片重复呈现10次, 每次1000 ms; 在点探测任务阶段, 高熟悉度的婴儿面孔会重复出现8次, 每次1200 ms这样的设置可能存在重复次数过多、重复时间过长的情况, 导致出现习惯化和无聊的现象。在以往的研究中, 大多研究者都认同10次左右的曝光是最好的(Zebrowitz, White, Wieneke, 2008; Zebrowitz & Zhang, 2012), 由于实验的任务和目的各不相同, 对刺激的呈现时间并不一致。Zebrowitz等(2008)将面孔图片每个呈现10次, 把呈现时间设置为50 ms来降低熟悉面孔的适应性; Zebrowitz和Zhang (2012)的研究则采用100 ms的呈现时间来探讨对重复呈现面孔的喜爱度增加的脑机制。本研究为了操纵客观熟悉度, 确保被试能成功再认出之前呈现过的面孔, 在学习阶段将面孔图片的呈现时间设置为1000 ms, 可能造成被试对重复曝光过的熟悉面孔出现适应性, 故只在低熟悉度的条件下出现可爱度的效应。
4.3 高熟悉度的婴儿面孔的可爱度评分更高
最后, 评分结果发现, 不管是高可爱度的婴儿面孔, 还是低可爱度的婴儿面孔, 通过重复曝光之后, 可爱度评分显著高于可爱度与之匹配的未重复呈现的婴儿面孔。该结果表明, 客观熟悉度对婴儿面孔可爱度的影响机制上支持普遍积极转变假说, 即只要是熟悉的都是可爱的。由此, 在婴儿面孔当中也发现了重复曝光对面孔可爱度增加的影响, 前人研究提示, 对曝光的面孔的正性评价增加与知觉流畅性有关(Zebrowitz & Zhang, 2012; Garcia- Marques et al., 2016), 加工重复呈现的面孔时, 被试的反应速度更快, 需要的认知资源更少, 因此, 相比之下, 对重复呈现的熟悉面孔的观看时间也会减少。有趣的是, 客观熟悉度对婴儿面孔可爱度的评价与对可爱度与注意偏向效应之间的作用并不一致, 表现为对熟悉的婴儿面孔的可爱度评分更高, 却对低熟悉度的婴儿面孔的观看时间更长。这种不一致可能是由实验任务不同造成的。已有研究采用喜爱度和愉悦度评定、偏好选择的迫选任务, 均发现被试对之前重复呈现过的刺激偏好(Batres, Kannan, & Perrett, 2017; Park et al., 2010), 不难发现, 这些任务更多的考察被试在情感维度上对重复曝光刺激的反应。Lee (2001)的研究指出, 对重复曝光刺激的认知加工和情感反应存在着不同的作用机制, 随着重复次数的增加, 对重复曝光的刺激的认知加工逐渐下降, 与之相反, 对重复曝光刺激的情感反应会不断上升。Esposito等人(2014)发现, 本族和异族婴儿面孔均会自动诱发生理反应, 表现为面部温度的升高, 而在行为评定上, 均只对自己种族的婴儿表现出偏好。这可能是出现矛盾结果的原因之一, 即对低熟悉度的婴儿面孔的注视时间更长, 而在主观评定中更加偏好熟悉的刺激。
5 不足与展望
综上所述, 本研究发现, 在反应时上, 个体对高可爱度的婴儿面孔的注意偏向更强; 在眼动指标上, 可爱度影响成人对婴儿面孔的注意维持效应, 且只出现在低熟悉度条件下; 在偏好行为上, 高熟悉度的婴儿面孔的可爱度评分更高, 表面成人对婴儿面孔的主观评定和观看行为上可能存在分离的情况。但是, 研究中仍存在一些不足和需进一步改进的地方。首先, 在点探测任务中, 我们并未直接操纵成人面孔的吸引力和性别因素, Hahn等(2013)的研究指出, 个体在对异性面孔的加工上存在性别差异, 男性对异性面孔投入的注意资源更多, 高吸引力的女性面孔会更快地捕获男性的注意, 后续研究可考虑将成人面孔的吸引力与性别因素纳入考察变量。其次, 本研究选取男、女被试混合进行研究, 可能会对实验结果产生影响, 由于生物进化的影响, 女性先天地充当着照料者的角色, 对婴儿信息的感知比男性更加敏感, 与男性相比, 女性认为婴儿面孔更加可爱, 知觉婴儿面孔可爱度的敏感性更强(罗笠铢, 罗禹, 鞠恩霞, 马文娟, 李红, 2011)。因此, 后续研究可分开考察不同性别的被试的加工特点。
由于婴幼儿信息的特殊意义, 可爱度和熟悉度在父母的养育、照顾行为, 以及探究非父母群体养育脑的形成机制当中具有重要作用, 需要未来进一步探讨。
首先, Kringelbach等(2016)认为婴儿可爱度是在生物学上具有显著意义、积极的多模态刺激, 可以通过视觉、声音或者味道激发快速地选择性注意加工, 进而促进照料行为和其他复杂的情绪反应, 未来研究需要关注其他形式的婴儿信息可爱度的作用机制。
第二, 婴儿面孔构型上的差异会影响成人的注视模式(Rayson et al., 2016), 未来可以进一步探讨婴儿面孔熟悉度和可爱度对面孔各兴趣区(额头、眼睛、嘴部等区域)注视模式的影响。
第三, 在熟悉度的类别划分上, Peskin和Newell (2004)区分了两类重要的面孔熟悉度：知觉熟悉度(perceived familiarity)和情景熟悉度(episodic familiarity)。一般熟悉度是通过比较当前面孔与日常生活中面孔的相似程度而得到的, 更偏向“主观的”, 例如, 比较陌生人与朋友/家人的相似程度, 相似程度越高熟悉度也就越高。而情景熟悉度则是指对之前出现过的特定面孔产生的熟悉度, 更偏向“客观的”, 例如, 本文通过重复曝光操纵的就是情景熟悉度。未来可以直接探讨成人对个人熟悉的婴儿面孔、客观上熟悉的婴儿面孔和陌生的婴儿面孔在注意加工上的差异。
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Romantic and maternal love are highly rewarding experiences. Both are linked to the perpetuation of the species and therefore have a closely linked biological function of crucial evolutionary importance. Yet almost nothing is known about their neural correlates in the human. We therefore used fMRI to measure brain activity in mothers while they viewed pictures of their own and of acquainted children, and of their best friend and of acquainted adults as additional controls. The activity specific to maternal attachment was compared to that associated to romantic love described in our earlier study and to the distribution of attachment-mediating neurohormones established by other studies. Both types of attachment activated regions specific to each, as well as overlapping regions in the brain's reward system that coincide with areas rich in oxytocin and vasopressin receptors. Both deactivated a common set of regions associated with negative emotions, social judgment and 'mentalizing', that is, the assessment of other people's intentions and emotions. We conclude that human attachment employs a push-pull mechanism that overcomes social distance by deactivating networks used for critical social assessment and negative emotions, while it bonds individuals through the involvement of the reward circuitry, explaining the power of love to motivate and exhilarate.
Familiarity with own population’s appearance influences facial preferences
Men do not have a stronger preference than women for self-resemblant child faces
That baby caught my eye.. attention capture by infant faces
Beyond fear: Rapid spatial orienting toward positive emotional stimuli
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Cuteness in offspring is a potent protective mechanism that ensures survival for otherwise completely dependent infants. Previous research has linked cuteness to early ethological ideas of a 'Kindchenschema' (infant schema) where infant facial features serve as 'innate releasing mechanisms' for instinctual caregiving behaviours. We propose extending the concept of cuteness beyond visual features to include positive infant sounds and smells. Evidence from behavioural and neuroimaging studies links this extended concept of cuteness to simple 'instinctual' behaviours and to caregiving, protection, and complex emotions. We review how cuteness supports key parental capacities by igniting fast privileged neural activity followed by slower processing in large brain networks also involved in play, empathy, and perhaps even higher-order moral emotions.
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OBJECTIVE: Early mother-infant interactions are impaired in the context of infant cleft lip and are associated with adverse child psychological outcomes, but the nature of these interaction difficulties is not yet fully understood. The aim of this study was to explore adult gaze behavior and cuteness perception, which are particularly important during early social exchanges, in response to infants with cleft lip, in order to investigate potential foundations for the interaction difficulties seen in this population. METHODS: Using an eye tracker, eye movements were recorded as adult participants viewed images of infant faces with and without cleft lip. Participants also rated each infant on a scale of cuteness. RESULTS: Participants fixated significantly longer on the mouths of infants with cleft lip, which occurred at the expense of fixation on eyes. Severity of cleft lip was associated with the strength of fixation bias, with participants looking even longer at the mouths of infants with the most severe clefts. Infants with cleft lip were rated as significantly less cute than unaffected infants. Men rated infants as less cute than women overall but gave particularly low ratings to infants with cleft lip. CONCLUSIONS: Results demonstrate that the limited disturbance in infant facial configuration of cleft lip can significantly alter adult gaze patterns and cuteness perception. Our findings could have important implications for early interactions and may help in the development of interventions to foster healthy development in infants with cleft lip.
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White participants were exposed to other-race or own-race faces to test the generalized mere exposure hypothesis in the domain of face perception, namely that exposure to a set of faces yields increased liking for similar faces that have never been seen. In Experiment 1, rapid supraliminal exposures to Asian faces increased White participants' subsequent liking for a different set of Asian faces. In Experiment 2, subliminal exposures to Black faces increased White participants' subsequent liking for a different set of Black faces. The findings are consistent with prominent explanations for mere exposure effects as well as with the familiar face overgeneralization hypothesis that prejudice derives in part from negative reactions to faces that deviate from the familiar own-race prototype.
