The effects of study-list repetition on of semantic associates were examined using (Experiment 1) and recognition time pressure (Experiment 2). Participants studied word lists, each of which was composed of high associates to a single, unstudied word (the critical lure). Under normal testing circumstances, young adult participants (ages 19-26) falsely endorsed fewer critical lures associated with lists that had been presented multiple times than lists presented only once. However, young participants tested under time pressure and older participants (ages 67-85) endorsed a greater number of critical items associated with lists presented thrice than with lists presented once. The results suggest dual bases for the recognition decision, one of which is based on the rapid spread of activation within domains of semantic similarity and the other of which functions to attribute that activation to likely sources and set appropriate decision criteria. The latter capacity is compromised both under conditions of time pressure and in the elderly.

Research has shown that false memory production is enhanced for material that is emotionally congruent with the mood of the participant at the time of encoding. So far this research has only examined the influence of generic negative affective mood states and generic negative stimuli on false memory production. In addition, much of the research is limited as it focuses on valence and arousal dimensions, and fails to take into account the more comprehensive nature of emotions. The current study demonstrates that this effect goes beyond general negative or positive moods and acts at a more discrete emotional level. Participants underwent a standard emotion induction procedure before listening to negative emotional or neutral associative word lists. The emotions induced, negative word lists and associated non-presented critical lures, were related to either fear or anger, two negative valence emotions that are also both high in arousal. Results showed that when valence and arousal are controlled for, false memories are more likely to be produced for discrete emotionally congruent compared to incongruent materials. These results support spreading activation theories of false remembering and add to our understanding of the adaptive nature of false memory production.

Do the emotional valence and arousal of events distort children memories? Do valence and arousal modulate counterintuitive age increases in false memory? We investigated those questions in children, adolescents, and adults using the Cornell/Cortland Emotion Lists, a word list pool that induces false memories and in which valence and arousal can be manipulated factorially. False memories increased with age for unpresented semantic associates of word lists, and net accuracy (the ratio of true memory to total memory) decreased with age. These surprising developmental trends were more pronounced for negatively valenced materials than for positively valenced materials, they were more pronounced for high-arousal materials than for low-arousal materials, and developmental increases in the effects of arousal were small in comparison with developmental increases in the effects of valence. These findings have ramifications for legal applications of false memory research; materials that share the emotional hallmark of crimes (events that are negatively valenced and arousing) produced the largest age increases in false memory and the largest age declines in net accuracy.

Remembering negative events can stimulate high levels of false memory, relative to remembering neutral events. In experiments in which the emotional valence of encoded materials was manipulated with their arousal levels controlled, valence produced a continuum of memory falsification. Falsification was highest for negative materials, intermediate for neutral materials, and lowest for positive materials. Conjoint-recognition analysis produced a simple process-level explanation: As one progresses from positive to neutral to negative valence, false memory increases because (a) the perceived meaning resemblance between false and true items increases and (b) subjects are less able to use verbatim memories of true items to suppress errors.

Abstract Neuroimaging has identified an overlapping network of brain regions whose activity is modulated by mood and cognition. Studies of depressed individuals have shown changes in perception, attention, memory, and executive functions. This suggests that mood has a pervasive effect on cognition. Direct evidence of the effect of sad mood on cognition is surprisingly limited, however. Published studies have generally addressed a single cognitive ability per study because the fleeting nature of laboratory-induced mood precludes extended testing, and robust findings are limited to mood effects on memory for emotional stimuli. In this study, sad mood was induced and prolonged, enabling the effects of mood to be assessed for an array of abilities, including those that share neural substrates with sad mood and those affected by depression. Sad mood affected memory for emotional words and facial emotion recognition, but not the other processes measured, with a significant nonuniformity of effect over tasks. These results are consistent with circumscribed effects of sad mood on certain emotion-related cognitive processes, but not on cognition more generally.

The study examined the effects of emotional state on false recognition in the DRM paradigm,and tested different emotional groups with every two categories among study words,non-presented lures,and non-related words.In this study different emotional states were created by music.The results show that the negative emotional group was significantly less likely to show false memory effects than the positive emotional group.The positive emotional group did better than the negative emotional group in study items,non-presented lures,and non-related words.The results suggest that both encoding-based process and retrieval-based process play a role in the production of false recognition.

通过音乐诱发情绪,并给予预警指导语,采用DRM范式和信号检测论的研究方法,检验不同情绪组被试对学习词、无关词、关键诱词两两之间的辨别感受性。结果发现：积极情绪组较之消极情绪组会产生更多的错误记忆,并且消极情绪组对各类词之间的辨别感受性均高于积极情绪组。这说明编码过程和提取过程会共同影响错误记忆效应。研究结果较支持激活监测理论。

Abstract False confession is a major contributor to the problem of wrongful convictions in the United States. Here, we provide direct evidence linking sleep deprivation and false confessions. In a procedure adapted from Kassin and Kiechel [(1996) Psychol Sci 7(3):125-128], participants completed computer tasks across multiple sessions and repeatedly received warnings that pressing the "Escape" key on their keyboard would cause the loss of study data. In their final session, participants either slept all night in laboratory bedrooms or remained awake all night. In the morning, all participants were asked to sign a statement, which summarized their activities in the laboratory and falsely alleged that they pressed the Escape key during an earlier session. After a single request, the odds of signing were 4.5 times higher for the sleep-deprived participants than for the rested participants. These findings have important implications and highlight the need for further research on factors affecting true and false confessions.

The Deese/Roediger-McDermott paradigm was used to investigate the effect of depression on true and false recognition. In this experiment true and false recognition was examined across positive, neutral, negative, and depression-relevant lists for individuals with and without a diagnosis of major depressive disorder. Results showed that participants with major depressive disorder falsely recognised significantly more depression-relevant words than non-depressed controls. These findings also parallel recent research using recall instead of recognition and show that there are clear mood congruence effects for depression on false memory performance.

ABSTRACT Eight- and 12-year-old children were presented with neutral and negative emotional Deese-Roediger-McDermott lists equated on familiarity and associative strength. Both recall and recognition ( A ') measures were obtained. Recall measures exhibited the usual age increments in true and false recollection. True neutral items were better recalled and recognized than true negative emotional items. Although the children showed more false recall for neutral than for negative emotional lists, false recognition was higher for negative emotional than for neutral items. A ' analyses also showed that whereas true neutral information and false neutral information were easily discriminated by children regardless of age, the same was not the case for true and false negative emotional information. Together, these results suggest that although children may be able to censor negative emotional information at recall, such information promotes relational processing in children's memory, making true and false emotional information less discriminable overall.

It is widely reported that emotional negative stimuli are processed preferentially relative to positive and neutral stimuli. But there are also many other studies that do not find the processing differences between negative and positive stimuli. This divergence might result from the different attention levels among studies. Some researchers suggest that when attention resources are extremely scarce,organisms can not respond discriminately to negative and positive information. Thus,one may ask whether negative stimuli must be treated preferentially if plenty of attention is available. The current study manipulated attention by a cue-target paradigm. In the valid cueing condition,subjects could obtain sufficient attention resources,while in the invalid cueing condition,resources were relatively insufficient. It was noteworthy that both attention levels in the current experiment were far greater than the attention scarceness that was mentioned before. Positive,neutral and negative pictures from the International Affective Picture System and the Chinese Affective Picture System were transformed into upper and lower adjacent patchworks of a normal scene and its inverted copy. Seventeen undergraduate students participated in the study. They were instructed to pay attention to the structure of the patchworks and to judge whether the normal scene was located in the upper or lower part of the whole patchwork. This implicit task was used to avoid the task relevance effect. The behavioral data showed that the response accuracy in the valid cueing condition was significantly higher than that in the invalid cueing condition. Amplitudes of P1,N1,P2 and N2 components were also modulated by attention level. Significant interactions between emotion and attention were found in LPC difference waves. In the sufficient attention condition,there was no obvious difference between 'positive minus neutral' and 'negative minus neutral'. In contrast,the LPC amplitude of 'negative minus neutral' was significantly larger than that of 'positive minus neutral' when the attention resource was relatively inadequate. This study suggests that when enough attention resources are available,positive information can be processed in the same way as negative information,i.e.,negativity bias does not necessarily show up in circumstances of sufficient attention. The processing superiority of negative events is more likely to take effect in situations where attention resources are not adequate. The phenomenon that emotional processing is modulated by attention is a manifestation of adaptation to environments. More work,such as manipulating attention systematically to observe the influence on emotional processing,is needed to explore this issue further.

Attention network theory suggests that there are three separate neural networks that execute the discrete functions of alerting, orienting, and executive attention. Previous research on the influence of mood on attention has shown subtle and inconsistent results. The attention network theory may aid in clarifying the influence of mood on attention. The present study investigated the influence of mood on attentional networks in a normal population. Participants performed the Attention Network Test (ANT), which provides functional measures of alerting, orienting, and executive attention. Positive or negative mood was induced by listening to music with a positive or negative valence, respectively; neutral mood was induced by reading a collection of basic facts about China. The results revealed that negative mood led to a significantly higher alerting efficiency relative to other moods, while there were no significant mood effects on orienting or executive attention efficiency. According to the algorithm underlying the ANT, the higher alerting efficiency in the negative mood condition can be attributed to relatively greater benefits of cueing effects. The findings are discussed in the context of the noradrenergic system and of evolutionary significance. Specifically, the increase in the alerting function during negative mood states may be due to the modulation effect of negative mood on the noradrenergic system, and/or to the survival benefit resulting from an increase in automatic vigilance towards negative information. The current results suggest that as the influence of negative mood on attention appears to specifically consist in an enhanced alerting function, it may not be found in studies where the three attentional networks are not dissociated.

This paper revises the Positive Affect and Negative Affect Scale(PANAS)constructed by Watson et al.(1988)on the basis of two-dimension affect structure theory.After collecting the positive and negative affect items in the principal affect circumplex models,we deleted the non-emotion items according to the experts' evaluation,and used questionnaires to explore the typicality of those emotions.The final version of revised scale was identified after a pilot study.Then the psychometrical properties of the revised scale were tested with data collected by ways of self report,peer report,and cognitive approach.The results suggest that all the items in the revised PANAS have ideal differentiability,and hence,it is a valid and reliable measurement for affective well-being.

以情感二维结构理论为基础，对Watson等（1988）编制的积极情感消极情感量表（PANAS）进行了修订。收集了几种主要的情感环丛模型中积极情感和消极情感项目后，用专家评定法剔除了不属于情绪描述词的项目，并用问卷法考察了这些情感体验的典型性，试测后确定了积极情感和消极情感项目各9项构成最终量表。最后用自评、同伴评价和认知测量法对量表的心理测量学属性进行了较为全面的分析。结果表明，修订后的PANAS中各项目具有良好的区分度，是情感幸福感有效和可靠的测量工具。

Presents experiments modeled after J. Deese's 1959 study on false recall and false recognition in a list learning paradigm. False recall and false recognition of critical nonpresented words; Confidence with which subjects accepted or rejected the critical nonpresented words as having been in the study list; Use of remember-know procedure developed by Tulving.

Abstract The Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm lures people to produce false memories. Two experiments examined whether induced positive or negative moods would influence this false memory effect. The affect-as-information hypothesis predicts that, on the one hand, positive affective cues experienced as task-relevant feedback encourage relational processing during encoding, which should enhance false memory effects. On the other hand, negative affective cues are hypothesized to encourage item-specific processing at encoding, which should discourage such effects. The results of Experiment 1 are consistent with these predictions: Individuals in negative moods were significantly less likely to show false memory effects than those in positive moods or those whose mood was not manipulated. Experiment 2 introduced inclusion instructions to investigate whether moods had their effects at encoding or retrieval. The results replicated the false memory finding of Experiment 1 and provide evidence that moods influence the accessibility of lures at encoding, rather than influencing monitoring at retrieval of whether lures were actually presented.

Presents normative data for word lists that create false memories. Proportion of subjects who recalled an item as a function of serial position and list; Evaluation of the effectiveness of the word lists developed in previous studies; Role of associative processes in creating false memories; Characteristics of the lists that determines their tendency to elicit false memories.

时间压力是影响决策的重要变量。研究者对此也进行了深入的研究，结果却出现了严重的分歧：一种是时间压力严重降低了决策质量；另一种是时间压力提升了决策质量。针对上述问题，本研究引入时间压力变量（高时间压力、中等时间压力、低时间压力），以管理中遇到的问题为决策任务，继续考察时间压力对决策的影响。

探讨情绪记忆短时和长时增强效应相对特异性机制以及唤醒度和效价在情绪记忆中的作用。运用不同阶段提取和不同情绪类别相结合的多因素设计方法,对20位正常年轻成人进行行为学检测。结果显示,情绪对记忆加工不同阶段（短时和长时）的调节作用（增强效应）具有时间依赖性,且主要取决于情绪唤醒度,而无显著正负效价性差异。在短时阶段主要涉及高唤醒度的增强;而长时阶段涉及不同水平唤醒度的增强,不同唤醒度的增强效应存在相对分离。

Emotional memory involves in the relationship of emotion and cognition.It is not only the focus of emotion study,but also receives the attention of memory study.Many theory models of emotional memory formed in current emotional memory study.The major models are:Bower's associative semantic network model,Lang's bioinformational model,Leventhal' hierarchical model,Teasdale's integrated cognitive subsystems model,Philippot's integrative model,LeDoux's model of emotional memory,and Damasio's theory of primary and secondary emotion system.The perspectives of model were summarized,and its value and limitation were discussed in this paper.

The memory of people are not always correct,when people sometimes declare to remember some events that in fact has never occurred,this is how false memories produced.Spreading activation theory tries to explain the mechanism of false memories.According to this theory,semantics related information is organized together in memory.Semantic activation of the learning items will spread to critical lures that have semantic association with the items through semantic network and thus activates the critical lures to generate false memory.Due to the fact that false memory has important influence on daily life,many researches focus on how to reduce false memory.Presenting a warning signal is the most common method in the laboratory to reduce false memory.DRM paradigm only shows one type of human false memory phenomenon.Studies show that mood also has great influence on human memory and this effect is mainly reflected in mood-congruent memory bias.Bower(1981) used associative network theory of emotion to explain this phenomenon.Based on spreading activation theory and associative network theory of emotion,we hypothesized that unconsciously spreading activated semantic and emotional information leads people to retrieve mood-congruent information.This information includes original input information and moods and semantics related non-original information,namely false memory information.False retrieval of mood-congruent non-original information generates mood-congruent false memory.Therefore,Experiment 1 examined whether the existence of mood-congruent false memory among normal participants.After warning cues were added,experiment 2 explored whether warning cue can reduce false memory.This study will explore the hypothesis:(1) error recognition rate of positive critical lures in the positive mood is significantly higher than that in the negative and neutral moods,and error recognition rate of negative critical lures in the negative mood is significantly higher than that in the positive and neutral moods;(2)warning cues cannot reduce mood-congruent false memory.Thirty-two and thirty participants were randomly selected in experiment 1 and 2 by campus BBS,respectively.All participants were right-handed with normal or corrected to normal visions,and they had no history of mood disorders.They were equally selected from science major and liberal arts major.All data were analyzed by SPSS 16.0.The hypothesis is supported by the result.The results showed that:(1) error recognition rate of positive critical lures in the positive mood was significantly higher than that in the negative and neutral moods and error recognition rate of negative critical lures in the negative mood was significantly higher than that in the positive and neutral moods;(2) warning cue cannot reduce false memory and mood-congruent false memory;(3) participants were inclined to make "remember" judgment to mood-congruent critical lures with or without warning.This study creatively combined spreading activation theory with associative network theory of emotion to explain mood-congruent false memory phenomenon.Theoretical significance of this study lies in the fact that it can further reveal the mechanism of the interaction between the left hemisphere of the brain which is responsible for word processing and the right hemisphere of the brain which is responsible for perceptual material processing.Practical value is mainly manifested in the fact that it can be used to explain how a pessimist becomes increasingly pessimistic and how an optimist becomes increasingly optimistic.It also has important application value for emotional management and emotional adjustment in psychological counseling.

The memory of people are not always correct, when people sometimes declare to remember some events that in fact has never occurred, this is how false memories produced. Spreading activation theory tries to explain the mechanism of false memories. According to this theory, semantics related information is organized together in memory. Semantic activation of the learning items will spread to critical lures that have semantic association with the items through semantic network and thus activates the critical lures to generate false memory. Due to the fact that false memory has important influence on daily life, many researches focus on how to reduce false memory. Presenting a warning signal is the most common method in the laboratory to reduce false memory. DRM paradigm only shows one type of human false memory phenomenon. Studies show that mood also has great influence on human memory and this effect is mainly reflected in mood-congruent memory bias. Bower (1981) used associative network theory of emotion to explain this phenomenon. Based on spreading activation theory and associative network theory of emotion, we hypothesized that unconsciously spreading activated semantic and emotional information leads people to retrieve mood-congruent information. This information includes original input information and moods and semantics related non-original information, namely false memory information. False retrieval of mood-congruent non-original information generates mood-congruent false memory. Therefore, Experiment 1 examined whether the existence of mood-congruent false memory among normal participants. After warning cues were added, experiment 2 explored whether warning cue can reduce false memory. This study will explore the hypothesis: (1) error recognition rate of positive critical lures in the positive mood is significantly higher than that in the negative and neutral moods, and error recognition rate of negative critical lures in the negative mood is significantly higher than that in the positive and neutral moods; (2)warning cues cannot reduce mood-congruent false memory. Thirty-two and thirty participants were randomly selected in experiment 1 and 2 by campus BBS, respectively. All participants were right-handed with normal or corrected to normal visions, and they had no history of mood disorders. They were equally selected from science major and liberal arts major. All data were analyzed by SPSS 16.0. The hypothesis is supported by the result. The results showed that: (1) error recognition rate of positive critical lures in the positive mood was significantly higher than that in the negative and neutral moods and error recognition rate of negative critical lures in the negative mood was significantly higher than that in the positive and neutral moods; (2) warning cue cannot reduce false memory and mood-congruent false memory; (3) participants were inclined to make 渞emember judgment to mood-congruent critical lures with or without warning. This study creatively combined spreading activation theory with associative network theory of emotion to explain mood-congruent false memory phenomenon. Theoretical significance of this study lies in the fact that it can further reveal the mechanism of the interaction between the left hemisphere of the brain which is responsible for word processing and the right hemisphere of the brain which is responsible for perceptual material processing. Practical value is mainly manifested in the fact that it can be used to explain how a pessimist becomes increasingly pessimistic and how an optimist becomes increasingly optimistic. It also has important application value for emotional management and emotional adjustment in psychological counseling.

Adopting the Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm,we investigated the mechanism of false recognition in a 2(forewarning) ×2(presentation time) ×2(time pressure during recognition)×3 (types of items) factorial design.ANOVA showed a significant main effect of forewarning,and interaction between item type and time pressure.With the signal detection theory(SDT),further analysis showed that the participants had poorer discrimination under time pressure,which indicated that they did not have enough time to make judgments.The SDT analysis also showed that participants used more strict response criteria when giving them forewarning.In-depth discussion was made in terms of the activation/monitoring theory.

采用DRM范式,通过对预警、呈现时间以及再认时间压力的同时操纵,深入探索错误记忆的产生机制。实验结果发现:(1)编码阶段的预警提示可使再认判断的标准趋于严格,从而降低错误记忆效应;(2)提取阶段的再认时间压力可显著降低被试对关键诱饵与学过项目的区分能力,进而提高错误记忆效应;(3)预警提示在无时间压力时要比有时间压力时更有效降低错误再认。该结果证实在记忆信息的提取阶段存在双加工过程,激活与监测的双加工在错误记忆产生过程中存在对抗式的交互作用。当监测过程在编码和提取两个阶段均受到易化时,策略性的控制过程最有效;当监测过程受阻时,将导致激活的效应更明显。

Using the Deese-Roediger-McDermott(DRM) paradigm,the different effects of warning and presentation duration on false recognition and false recall were examined.We used the visual presentation of lists of words and visual tests in both experiments.In Experiment 1,a recognition test was conducted.Effective warning reduced the false recognition of critical lures,but the effect of presentation duration was not significant.In experiment 2,a recall test was conducted.Both warning and presentation duration had no effect on false recall.The results indicated that the effect of warning on false recall was affected by presentation modality,and the wide range of presentation duration would simultaneously facilitate the activation process and monitoring process.

进化心理学是一种新的心理学研 究取向。这种研究取向对情绪问题给予了高度关注。从进化论的角度看,情绪是具有调理各种模块功能间关系的更高一级的认知程序。情绪是一种超级认知系统,它 是以采取维持主观允诺而背离具有诱惑力的即刻奖赏的策略来发挥作用的。这种思想对情绪的产生、分类、结构、功能等方面的诠释及理解情绪问题提供了新的思 路。