It is a hot research spot that investigating the neural mechanism of deception using functional magnetic resonance imaging and detectting lie based on its findings. Various experimental paradigms are adopted for revealing the cognitive and neural mechanism of feigned memory impairment, intentional error, and interpersonal deception. Furthermore, traditional GKT and CQT paradigms are used for detecting lies. Previous studies have emphasized the core roles of the prefrontal and parietal cortices implicating in cognitive control process in deception, however, lie detection based on the activities in these regions poses insufficient accuracy rates. Aside from highlighting executive control process, future research should focus on other cognitive components of deception and seek new indications of lie detection from memory traces and deception outcome, and reveal the neural basis of deception trait.

It has been an important issue to identify lies successfully in the long history of mankind. The brain imaging technology has been introduced as a new approach to detect lies in recent years. Originally different from the polygraph test which measures the physiological changes only, this technique can detect the neural activities and reveal the neuromechanism underlying deception. This article reviews the current progresses on deception study, and proposes a more completed psychophysiological model to better understand the deceptive behavior. In terms of the model, the authors discuss cognitive, emotional and peripheral physiological changes during telling a lie, as well as their possible mechanism and interaction. The work provides several reliable and comprehensive indicators and thus would benefit the future application of lie detection.

为了研究说谎时的脑网络特征, 采集了32个被试在说真话和说谎条件下的功能磁共振数据,预处理后利用AAL模板构建不同条件下的功能连接网络,再利用基于机器学习的多维模式分类器对说 谎和说真话进行分类。该分类器取得了良好的分类正确率82.03%(说谎84.38%,说真话79.69%),并提取了辨别说谎和说真话的有效的功能连接 模式。结果表明了使用大尺度的功能连接对说谎和说真话进行分类的良好性能,并且从脑网络角度揭示了说谎的特征。

基于功能性近红外光谱技术,采 用半自发说谎范式考察对个人信息自发说谎的神经机制.实验以26名大学生志愿者为研究对象,将其分为说谎组和控制组.在说谎组中,要求研究对象对个人信息 进行自发说谎;而在控制组中,要求研究对象对个人信息全部说真话.研究采用含氧血红蛋白增量作为神经激活的指标.结果表明,对个人信息进行自发说谎可引发 左侧额中回的显著激活,不进行自发说谎的则不引发前额皮层区域的显著激活.

Deception commonly exists in personal communication, interrogation and security and people often attempt to detect it through nonverbal visual cues. The paradigms in deception research are categorized as forced, voluntary or mixed deception. During deception, people usually experience higher cognitive load, higher emotional arousal and more attempted control, which would lead to the changes in nonverbal visual cues, such as eye movements, facial expressions and gestures. Other influential factors such as inter-personal and intra-personal differences were also analyzed and discussed. Future studies should further investigate the psychological mechanisms of deception and the psychological implications of nonverbal visual cues. Researchers should conduct more field studies to better understand the relationship between deception and nonverbal visual cues, and employ state-of-the-art technology to precisely measure and analyze nonverbal behaviors during deception.

情境因素会影响人们的说谎行为。本文基于自我概念维持理论的视角，从个体内部状态（自我控制资源、宗教表征/道德观念启动）和外部因素（金钱奖励、人际因素）两方面介绍情境因素对说谎行为的影响，并指出未来研究应关注自我觉察水平这一情境因素以及情境因素影响说谎行为的心理机制和神经机制。

功能性近红外光谱技术(functional near-infrared spectroscopy,fNIRS)利用血液的主要成分对600-900nm近红外光良好的散射性,从而获得大脑活动时氧合血红蛋白和脱氧血红蛋白的变化情况。目前该技术开始运用于自然情境下的高级认知、发展心理学、异常心理学等多个领域的研究。该技术具有造价较低、便携性好,无噪音、无创性和对实验过程中被试动作不会过份敏感等优点,但也存在空间分辨率不高和校正算法有待进一步完善等方面的不足。未来fNIRS的研究可以与fMRI等其他成像技术进行结合,开展婴幼儿和特殊人群的认知神经科学研究以及自然情境下大脑认知的神经机制研究。

社会交往能力是人类生存的基本技能。社交能力的缺失会导致严重的行为障碍和精神疾病，如自闭症。由于自闭症儿童的特殊性，绝大多数的自闭症脑成像研究多集中在年龄较大的高功能自闭症儿童在静息态或简单的任务态下的脑激活模式或功能连接状态。自闭症的核心症状-社会交往障碍和语言交流障碍却较少有研究触及。近年来，近红外光学脑功能成像技术的发展为我们在真实的交流和互动中研究自闭症儿童的神经病理机制提供了新的工具和机遇。

社会认知神经科学是运用认知神经科学的研究手段，探讨社会科学问题与理论的多学科交叉领域。近来，功能性近红外光学成像技术（functional near-infrared spectroscopy,fNIRS）凭借生态效度高、成像安全、对头动耐受性高、成本低等优势，成为了该领域新兴的热点技术。无论是在婴儿发育和社会经济决策的单脑研究中，还是在人际互动的多脑研究中，它都有广泛应用。未来近红外光学成像的应用可以向多脑神经反馈、脑机接口技术、设备无线化和多模态成像做进一步探索。

国外关于说谎行为及其识别的心理学研究主要包括对说谎时行为表现的研究、对说谎识别准确率的研究及测谎技术的开发与应用。说谎是人类社会普遍存在的现象,但研究显示人们对说谎行为的识别准确率并不显著高于随机判断的概率。说谎者通常所表现出来的与说真话时不同的特点被称为"线索",人们对说谎线索的看法与说谎者的实际行为表现并不一致。动机、互动特点、个体差异、沟通情境等因素对说谎和识别行为都会产生影响。网络沟通方式下的说谎行为呈现出一些新的特点。

儿童早期阶段是各项认知能力和脑发育的关键阶段。近红外光谱成像技术(f NIRS)凭借其非侵害性、便捷操作以及对头动容忍度高等特点,在早期阶段儿童认知发展与脑发育的研究中得到越来越多的应用。从早期高级认知发展与前额叶功能的单侧优势变化、对应前额叶脑区逐渐专门化、发展关键期与前额叶功能的可塑性,以及前额叶功能异常与早期发展障碍的关系等四个方面对基于f NIRS技术开展的早期认知发展与脑发育的研究进展进行了梳理和分析。指出未来研究应探究儿童早期认知能力发展和脑发育的轨迹及关键期,探讨有发展性障碍家族风险儿童的早期大脑发育特点,为早期教育和发展障碍的早期预警提供依据。

Abstract PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Visualization of how the brain generates a lie is now possible because of recent conceptual and technical advances in functional neuroimaging; this has led to a rapid increase in studies related to the cognitive neuroscience of deception. The present review summarizes recent work on the neural substrates that underlie human deceptive behavior. RECENT FINDINGS: Functional neuroimaging studies in healthy individuals have revealed that the prefrontal cortex plays a predominant role in deception. In addition, recent evidence obtained from loss-of-function studies with neuropsychological investigation and transcranial direct current stimulation has demonstrated the functional contribution of the prefrontal cortex to deception. Other research into the relationship between deception and the brain has focused on the potential use of functional MRI for lie detection, neural correlates of pathological lying, and brain mechanisms underlying inference of deceit by others. SUMMARY: Converging evidence from multiple sources suggests that the prefrontal cortex organizes the processes of inhibiting true responses and making deceptive responses. The neural mechanisms underlying various other aspects of deception are also gradually being delineated, although the findings are diverse, and further study is needed. These studies represent an important step toward a neural explanation of complex human deceptive behavior.

How do people tell a lie? One useful approach to addressing this question is to elucidate the neural substrates for deception. Recent conceptual and technical advances in functional neuroimaging have enabled exploration of the psychology of deception more precisely in terms of the specific neuroanatomical mechanisms involved. A growing body of evidence suggests that the prefrontal cortex plays a key role in deception, and some researchers have recently emphasized the importance of other brain regions, such as those responsible for emotion and reward. However, it is still unclear how these regions play a role in making effective decisions to tell a lie. To provide a framework for considering this issue, the present article reviews current accomplishments in the study of the neural basis of deception. First, evolutionary and developmental perspectives are provided to better understand how and when people can make use of deception. The ensuing section introduces several findings on pathological lying and its neural correlate. Next, recent findings in the cognitive neuroscience of deception based on functional neuroimaging and loss-of-function studies are summarized, and possible neural mechanisms underlying deception are proposed. Finally, the priority areas of future neuroscience research-human honesty and dishonesty-are discussed.

Abstract The authors performed a meta-analysis based on 169 conditions, gathered from 80 laboratory studies, to estimate the validity of the Guilty Knowledge Test (GKT) with the electrodermal measure. The overall average effect size was 1.55, but there were considerable variations among studies. In particular, mock-crime studies produced the highest average effect size (2.09). Three additional moderators were identified: Motivational instructions, deceptive ("no") verbal responses, and the use of at least 5 questions were associated with enhanced validity. Finally, a set of 10 studies that best approximated applications of the GKT under optimal conditions produced an average effect size of 3.12. The authors discuss factors that might limit the generalizability of these results and recommend further research of the GKT in realistic setups.

In this paper, we have demonstrated the ability of a new multi-channel near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) system to detect deception in a concealed information test (CIT) paradigm. Brain signals from prefrontal cortex area of four healthy male subjects are collected using two different machines for comparison. Oxy and deoxy-hemoglobin (HbO and HbR) signals are used to define the features and then data is classified using linear discriminant analysis (LDA). Results show that the difference in HbO and HbR signals during lie and truth can be detected by the new wireless NIRS system.

Deception is a human behavior that many people experience in daily life. It involves complex neuronal activities in addition to several physiological changes in the body. A polygraph, which can measure some of the physiological responses from the body, has been widely employed in lie-detection. Many researchers, however, believe that lie detection can become more precise if the neuronal changes that occur in the process of deception can be isolated and measured. In this study, we combine both measures (i.e., physiological and neuronal changes) for enhanced lie-detection. Specifically, to investigate the deception-related hemodynamic response, functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is applied at the prefrontal cortex besides a commercially available polygraph system. A mock crime scenario with a single-trial stimulus is set up as a deception protocol. The acquired data are classified into “true” and “lie” classes based on the fNIRS-based hemoglobin-concentration changes and polygraph-based physiological signal changes. Linear discriminant analysis is utilized as a classifier. The results indicate that the combined fNIRS-polygraph system delivers much higher classification accuracy than that of a singular system. This study demonstrates a plausible solution toward single-trial lie-detection by combining fNIRS and the polygraph.

A current focus in deception research is on developing cognitive-load approaches (CLAs) to detect deception. The aim is to improve lie detection with evidence-based and ecologically valid procedures. Although these approaches show great potential, research on cognitive processes or mechanisms explaining how they operate is lacking. Potential mechanisms underlying the most popular techniques advocated for field application are highlighted. Cognitive scientists are encouraged to conduct basic research that qualifies the ‘cognitive’ in these new approaches.

Papers from four different groups were published in 1993 demonstrating the ability of functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to non-invasively measure hemoglobin concentration responses to brain function in humans. This special issue commemorates the first 20 years of fNIRS research. The 9 reviews and 49 contributed papers provide a comprehensive survey of the exciting advances driving the field forward and of the myriad of applications that will benefit from fNIRS. (C) 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Human social cognition critically relies on the ability to deceive others. However, the cognitive and neural underpinnings of deception are still poorly understood. Why does lying place increased demands on cognitive control? The present study investigated whether cognitive control processes during deception are recruited due to the need to inhibit a tendency to state the truth, or reflect deceptive intent more generally. We engaged participants in a face-to-face interaction game and examined event-related brain potentials (ERPs) while participants lied and told the truth with or without deceptive intention. The same medial frontal negative deflection (N450) occurred when participants lied and when they told the truth with deceptive intent. This suggests that the main challenge of lying is not to inhibit a tendency to state the truth. Rather, the challenge is to handle the cognitive conflict resulting from the need to keep others mental states in mind while deceiving them.

Previous neuroimaging studies have implicated the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and nearby brain regions in deception. This is consistent with the hypothesis that lying involves the executive control system. To date, the nature of the contribution of different aspects of executive control to deception, however, remains unclear. In the present study, we utilized an activation likelihood estimate (ALE) method of meta-analysis to quantitatively identify brain regions that are consistently more active for deceptive responses relative to truthful responses across past studies. We then contrasted the results with additional ALE maps generated for 3 different aspects of executive control: working memory, inhibitory control, and task switching. Deception-related regions in dorsolateral PFC and posterior parietal cortex were selectively associated with working memory. Additional deception regions in ventrolateral PFC, anterior insula, and anterior cingulate cortex were associated with multiple aspects of executive control. In contrast, deception-related regions in bilateral inferior parietal lobule were not associated with any of the 3 executive control constructs. Our findings support the notion that executive control processes, particularly working memory, and their associated neural substrates play an integral role in deception. This work provides a foundation for future research on the neurocognitive basis of deception.

Deception is commonly seen in everyday social interactions. However, most of the knowledge about the underlying neural mechanism of deception comes from studies where participants were instructed when and how to lie. To study spontaneous deception, we designed a guessing game modeled after Greene and Paxton (2009) "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(30), 12506-12511", in which lying is the only way to achieve the performance level needed to end the game. We recorded neural responses during the game using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). We found that when compared to truth-telling, spontaneous deception, like instructed deception, engenders greater involvement of such prefrontal regions as the left superior frontal gyrus. We also found that the correct-truth trials produced greater neural activities in the left middle frontal gyrus and right superior frontal gyrus than the incorrect-truth trials, suggesting the involvement of the reward system. Furthermore, the present study confirmed the feasibility of using NIRS to study spontaneous deception. (C) 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

61We examined neural correlates of second-order deception using fNIRS methodology.61It activates prefrontal cortex involved in planning and goal processing.61Lying to deceive engenders more prefrontal activities than telling-truth to deceive.61Second-order deception also involves of the cortical reward system.

Abstract The present study examined how different brain regions interact with each other during spontaneous honest vs. dishonest communication. More specifically, we took a complex network approach based on the graph-theory to analyze neural response data when children are spontaneously engaged in honest or dishonest acts. Fifty-nine right-handed children between 7 and 12 years of age participated in the study. They lied or told the truth out of their own volition. We found that lying decreased both the global and local efficiencies of children's functional neural network. This finding, for the first time, suggests that lying disrupts the efficiency of children's cortical network functioning. Further, it suggests that the graph theory based network analysis is a viable approach to study the neural development of deception.

Lying is a pervasive human behavior. Evidence to date suggests that from the age of 42 months onward, children become increasingly capable of telling lies in various social situations. However, there is limited experimental evidence regarding whether very young children will tell lies spontaneously. The present study investigated the emergence of lying in very young children. Sixty-five 2-to 3-year-olds were asked not to peek at a toy when the experimenter was not looking. The majority of children (80%) transgressed and peeked at the toy. When asked whether they had peeked at the toy, most 2-year-old peekers were honest and confessed to their peeking, but with increased age, more peekers denied peeking and thus lied. However, when asked follow-up questions that assessed their ability to maintain their initial lies, most children failed to conceal their lie by pretending to be ignorant of the toy's identity. Additionally, after controlling for age, children's executive functioning skills significantly predicted young children's tendency to lie. These findings suggest that children begin to tell lies at a very young age.

Functional MRI (fMRI)-based lie detection has been marketed as a tool for enhancing personnel selection, strengthening national security and protecting personal reputations, and at least three US courts have been asked to admit the results of lie detection scans as evidence during trials. How well does fMRI-based lie detection perform, and how should the courts, and society more generally, respond? Here, we address various questions — some of which are based on a meta-analysis of published studies — concerning the scientific state of the art in fMRI-based lie detection and its legal status, and discuss broader ethical and societal implications. We close with three general policy recommendations.

78 The paper celebrates the 20th anniversary of functional fNIRS. 78 Events that have shaped the present status of fNIRS are reported. 78 fNIRS methodology has undergone consistent improvements over the years. 78 The application of fNIRS in Medicine and basic research have been increasing. 78 Technological development will augment fNIRS application in adults and infants.

What makes people behave honestly when confronted with opportunities for dishonest gain? Research on the interplay between controlled and automatic processes in decision making suggests 2 hypotheses: According to the "Will" hypothesis, honesty results from the active resistance of temptation, comparable to the controlled cognitive processes that enable the delay of reward. According to the "Grace" hypothesis, honesty results from the absence of temptation, consistent with research emphasizing the determination of behavior by the presence or absence of automatic processes. To test these hypotheses, we examined neural activity in individuals confronted with opportunities for dishonest gain. Subjects undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) gained money by accurately predicting the outcomes of computerized coin-flips. In some trials, subjects recorded their predictions in advance. In other trials, subjects were rewarded based on self-reported accuracy, allowing them to gain money dishonestly by lying about the accuracy of their predictions. Many subjects behaved dishonestly, as indicated by improbable levels of "accuracy." Our findings support the Grace hypothesis. Individuals who behaved honestly exhibited no additional control-related activity (or other kind of activity) when choosing to behave honestly, as compared with a control condition in which there was no opportunity for dishonest gain. In contrast, individuals who behaved dishonestly exhibited increased activity in control-related regions of prefrontal cortex, both when choosing to behave dishonestly and on occasions when they refrained from dishonesty. Levels of activity in these regions correlated with the frequency of dishonesty in individuals.

Deception involves complex neural processes in the brain. Different techniques have been used to study and understand brain mechanisms during deception. Moreover, efforts have been made to develop schemes that can detect and differentiate deception and truth-telling. In this paper, a functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS)-based online brain deception decoding framework is developed. Deploying dual-wavelength fNIRS, we interrogate 16 locations in the forehead when eight able-bodied adults perform deception and truth-telling scenarios separately. By combining preprocessed oxy-and deoxy-signals, we develop subject-specific classifiers using the support vector machine. Deception and truth-telling states are classified correctly in seven out of eight subjects. A control experiment is also conducted to verify the deception-related hemodynamic response. The average classification accuracy is over 83.44% from these seven subjects. The obtained result suggests that the applicability of fNIRS as a brain imaging technique for online deception detection is very promising.

Near infrared (NIR) is a portable, safe, affordable, non-invasive and negligibly intrusive functional optical imaging modality, which enables the measurement of the metabolic changes associated with cognitive activity. In this paper, we present the experimental procedures and data analysis of the functional near infrared (fNIR) measurements acquired from the forehead during cognitive tasks. The data is collected from subjects engaged in two standardized tasks, namely, the 'target categorization' and the 'guilty knowledge test' (GKT). In the case of target categorization, the aim is to study the changes in the blood oxygenation and volume level while the participants are experiencing decrements in vigilance, increased lapses of attention, cognitive slowing. We measured 25 minutes-long blood oxygenation and volume level changes during target responses in 11 participants performing target categorization. Data analysis results revealed that the level of oxygenation changes in missed targets is higher than the level in captured targets. The blood oxygenation and volume level changes during deceptive and truthful responses were measured in 16 participants performing the GKT and analyzed using statistical data analysis. The results of our data analysis showed that the level of oxygenation changes during 'lie' task is higher than the level during 'truth' task.

In this study, functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) was adopted to investigate the prefrontal cortical responses to deception under different motivations. By using a feigned memory impairment paradigm, 19 healthy adults were asked to deceive under the two different motivations: to obtain rewards and to avoid punishments. Results indicated that when deceiving for obtaining rewards, there was greater neural activation in the right inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) than the control condition. When deceiving for avoiding punishments, there was greater activation in the right inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and the left middle frontal gyrus (MFG) than the control condition. In addition, deceiving for avoiding punishments led to greater neural activation in the left MFG than when deceiving for obtaining rewards. Furthermore, the results showed a moderate hit rate in detecting deception under either motivation. These results demonstrated that deception with different motivations led to distinct responses in the prefrontal cortex. fNIRS could provide a useful technique for the detection of deception with strategy of feigning memory impairment under different motivations.

Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) was used to test whether monitoring inhibition-related brain regions is a feasible method for detecting both infrequent liars and frequent liars. Thirty-two participants were divided into two groups: the deceptive group (liars) and the non-deceptive group (ND group, innocents). All the participants were required to undergo a simulated interrogation by a computer. The participants from the deceptive group were instructed to tell a mix of lies and truths and those of the ND group were instructed always to tell the truth. Based on the number of deceptions, the participants of the deceptive group were further divided into a infrequently deceptive group (IFD group, infrequent liars) and a frequently deceptive group (FD group, frequent liars). The infrequent liars exhibited greater neural activities than the frequent liars and the innocents in the left middle frontal gyrus (MFG) when performing the deception detection tasks. While performing deception detection tasks, infrequent liars showed significantly greater neural activation in the left MFG than the baseline, but frequent liars and innocents did not exhibit this pattern of neural activation in any area of inhibition-related brain regions. The results of individual analysis showed an acceptable accuracy of detecting infrequent liars, but an unacceptable accuracy of detecting frequent liars. These results suggest that using fNIRS monitoring of inhibition-related brain regions is feasible for detecting infrequent liars, for whom deception may be more effortful and therefore more physiologically marked, but not frequent liars.

61Deception is defined as a social interactive phenomenon.61Research to date, however, has mainly focused on executive control during deception.61We investigated the influence of the experimental protocol on the neural correlates.61Activity in social and moral cognition areas reflected deception in social interaction.

Abstract How the brain generates a lie is an important and unsolved issue in neuroscience. Previous studies indicated that mentalizing, the ability to understand and manipulate the mental states of others, plays a critical role in successful deception. Accordingly, recent neuroimaging studies reported deception-related activity in the right temporo-parietal junction (rTPJ), a brain region closely related to the mentalizing ability. Detailed functions of rTPJ in deception, however, remain unclear. In the present study, we investigated a causal relationship between rTPJ and deception using transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS). Subjects received anodal tDCS to their rTPJ or V1 (control) and then performed three tasks in which they aimed to deceive another participant to get monetary rewards. In one of the three tasks, we found a significant decrease in a rate of successful deception when rTPJ was stimulated, indicating that neural enhancement of rTPJ caused poorer (not better) deceptive performances. Our results suggest that, in some tasks involving selfish (money-motivated) lying, neural processing in rTPJ does not contribute to successful deception through the metalizing ability. Rather, it would be related to the self-monitoring of morally-unacceptable behaviors (lying). The neural enhancement of rTPJ therefore increased the psychological resistance to lying, resulting in poorer deceptive performances. Copyright 2017 Elsevier Ireland Ltd and Japan Neuroscience Society. All rights reserved.

Abstract Several studies have aimed to address the natural inability of humankind to detect deception and accurately discriminate lying from truth in the legal context. To date, it has been well established that telling a lie is a complex mental activity. During deception, many functions of higher cognition are involved: the decision to lie, withholding the truth, fabricating the lie, monitoring whether the receiver believes the lie, and, if necessary, adjusting the fabricated story and maintaining a consistent lie. In the previous 15 years, increasing interest in the neuroscience of deception has resulted in new possibilities to investigate and interfere with the ability to lie directly from the brain. Cognitive psychology, as well as neuroimaging and neurostimulation studies, are increasing the possibility that neuroscience will be useful for lie detection. This paper discusses the scientific validity of the literature on neuroimaging and neurostimulation regarding lie detection to understand whether scientific findings in this field have a role in the forensic setting. We considered how lie detection technology may contribute to addressing the detection of deception in the courtroom and discussed the conditions and limits in which these techniques reliably distinguish whether an individual is lying.

Honesty plays a key role in social and economic interactions and is crucial for societal functioning. However, breaches of honesty are pervasive and cause significant societal and economic problems that can affect entire nations. Despite its importance, remarkably little is known about the neurobiological mechanisms supporting honest behavior. We demonstrate that honesty can be increased in humans with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Participants (n = 145) completed a die-rolling task where they could misreport their outcomes to increase their earnings, thereby pitting honest behavior against personal financial gain. Cheating was substantial in a control condition but decreased dramatically when neural excitability was enhanced with tDCS. This increase in honesty could not be explained by changes in material self-interest or moral beliefs and was dissociated from participants impulsivity, willingness to take risks, and mood. A follow-up experiment (n = 156) showed that tDCS only reduced cheating when dishonest behavior benefited the participants themselves rather than another person, suggesting that the stimulated neural process specifically resolves conflicts between honesty and material self-interest. Our results demonstrate that honesty can be strengthened by noninvasive interventions and concur with theories proposing that the human brain has evolved mechanisms dedicated to control complex social behaviors.

Executive function refers to the higher-order cognitive control process for the attainment of a specific goal. There are several subcomponents of executive function, such as inhibition, cognitive shifting, and working memory. Extensive neuroimaging research in adults has revealed that the lateral prefrontal cortex plays an important role in executive function. Developmental studies have reported behavioral evidence showing that executive function changes significantly during preschool years. However, the neural mechanism of executive function in young children is still unclear. This article reviews recent near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) research that examined the relationship between the development of executive function and the lateral prefrontal cortex. Specifically, this review focuses on cognitive shifting, inhibitory control, and working memory in young children. Research has consistently shown significant prefrontal activation during tasks in typically developed children, but this activation may be abnormal in children with developmental disorders. Finally, methodological issues and future directions are discussed.

ABSTRACT Physiological measurement has been deeply investigated in microenvironment. The physiology on molecular or biochemical levels is examined to diagnose disease in early state. With new brain imaging techniques such as multi - channel near - infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), the functions of the cognitive brain activities can be determined. In this study, the relationship between specific physiology of brain cortex and psychology of untruth is assessed through measurements of the changes in concentration deoxygenated hemoglobin (HHb) and oxygenated hemoglobin (HbO2)by multi - channel NIRS. Moreover, we found the complex combination at prefrontal cortex (Cz ) is related to physiology of truth and untruth.

The prefrontal cortex is believed to be responsible for execution of deceptive behavior and its involvement is associated with greater cognitive efforts. It is also generally assumed that deception is associated with the inhibition of default honest actions. However, the precise neurophysiological mechanisms underlying this process remain largely unknown. The present study was aimed to use... [Show full abstract]

The present study focused on the potential application of fNIRS in the detection of concealed information. Participants either committed a mock crime or not and then were presented with a randomized series of probes (crime-related information) and irrelevants (crime-irrelevant information) in a standard concealed information test (CIT). Participants in the guilty group were instructed to conceal crime-related information they obtained from the mock crime, thus making deceptive response to the probes. Meanwhile, their brain activity to probes and irrelevants was recorded by functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). At the group level, we found that probe items were associated with longer reaction times and greater activity in bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and supplementary motor cortex than irrelevant items in the guilty group, but not in the innocent group. These findings provided evidence on neural correlates of recognition during a CIT. Finally, on the basis of the activity in bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and supplementary motor cortex, the correct classification of guilty versus innocent participants was approximately 75 % and the combination of fNIRS and reaction time measures yielded a better classification rate of 83.3 %. These findings illustrate the feasibility and promise of using fNIRS to detect concealed information.

Since the first demonstration of how to simultaneously measure brain activity using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) on two subjects about 10 years ago, a new paradigm in neuroscience is emerging: measuring brain activity from two or more people simultaneously, termed “hyperscanning”. The hyperscanning approach has the potential to reveal inter-personal brain mechanisms underlying interaction-mediated brain-to-brain coupling. These mechanisms are engaged during real social interactions, and cannot be captured using single-subject recordings. In particular, functional near-infrared imaging (fNIRI) hyperscanning is a promising new method, offering a cost-effective, easy to apply and reliable technology to measure inter-personal interactions in a natural context. In this short review we report on fNIRI hyperscanning studies published so far and summarize opportunities and challenges for future studies.

61Comprehensive review on continuous wave functional near infrared imaging61Overview of currently available commercial near infrared imaging instrumentation61Review of technical aspects such as light sources, detectors and sensor arrangements61Review of methodological aspects, algorithms, and data analysis and its tool boxes

This experiment tests how people produce and detect deception while playing a computerized version of the dice game, Meyer. Deception is an integral part of this game, and the participants played it as in real life, without constraints on whether or when to attempt to deceive their opponent, and whether or when to accuse them of deception. We stress that deception is a complex act that cannot be exclusively associated with telling a falsehood, and that it is facilitated by hierarchical decision-making and risk evaluation. In comparison with a non-competitive control condition, both claiming truthfully and claiming falsely were associated with activity in fronto-polar cortex (BA10). However, relative to true claims, false claims were associated with greater activity in the premotor and parietal cortices. We speculate that the activity in BA10 is associated with the development of high-level executive strategies involved in both types of claim, while the premotor and parietal activity is associated with the need to select which particular claim to make.

With the increasing interest in the neuroimaging of deception and its commercial application, there is a need to pay more attention to methodology. The weakness of studying deception in an experimental setting has been discussed intensively for over half a century. However, even though much effort has been put into their development, paradigms are still inadequate. The problems that bedevilled the old technology have not been eliminated by the new. Advances will only be possible if experiments are designed that take account of the intentions of the subject and the context in which these occur.

An organism may use misinformation, knowingly (through deception) or unknowingly (as in the case of camouflage), to gain advantage in a competitive environment. From an evolutionary perspective, greater tactical deception occurs among primates closer to humans, with larger neocortices. In humans, the onset of deceptive behaviours in childhood exhibits a developmental trajectory, which may be regarded as 'normal' in the majority and deficient among a minority with certain neurodevelopmental disorders (e.g. autism). In the human adult, deception and lying exhibit features consistent with their use of 'higher' or 'executive' brain systems. Accurate detection of deception in humans may be of particular importance in forensic practice, while an understanding of its cognitive neurobiology may have implications for models of 'theory of mind' and social cognition, and societal notions of responsibility, guilt and mitigation. In recent years, functional neuroimaging techniques (especially functional magnetic resonance imaging) have been used to study deception. Though few in number, and using very different experimental protocols, studies published in the peer-reviewed literature exhibit certain consistencies. Attempted deception is associated with activation of executive brain regions (particularly prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortices), while truthful responding has not been shown to be associated with any areas of increased activation (relative to deception). Hence, truthful responding may comprise a relative 'baseline' in human cognition and communication. The subject who lies may necessarily engage 'higher' brain centres, consistent with a purpose or intention (to deceive). While the principle of executive control during deception remains plausible, its precise anatomy awaits elucidation.

Abstract In daily life, interpersonal interactions are influenced by uncertainty about other people's intentions. Face-to-face (FF) interaction reduces such uncertainty by providing external visible cues such as facial expression or body gestures and facilitates shared intentionality to promote belief of cooperative decisions and actual cooperative behaviors in interaction. However, so far little is known about interpersonal brain synchronization between two people engaged in naturally occurring FF interactions. In this study, we combined an adapted ultimatum game with functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) hyperscanning to investigate how FF interaction impacts interpersonal brain synchronization during economic exchange. Pairs of strangers interacted repeatedly either FF or face-blocked (FB), while their activation was simultaneously measured in the right temporo-parietal junction (rTPJ) and the control region, right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (rDLPFC). Behaviorally, FF interactions increased shared intentionality between strangers, leading more positive belief of cooperative decisions and more actual gains in the game. FNIRS results indicated increased interpersonal brain synchronizations during FF interactions in rTPJ (but not in rDLPFC) with greater shared intentionality between partners. These results highlighted the importance of rTPJ in collaborative social interactions during FF economic exchange and warrant future research that combines FF interactions with fNIRS hyperscanning to study social brain disorders such as autism. The Author (2015). Published by Oxford University Press. For Permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.

We report two studies on the capability of fNIRS brain imaging to detect deception. We demonstrate that fNIRS has potential to be a new approach to detect deception that has important applications for homeland society.

Deception involves complex neural processes and correlates in the brain. Functional brain imaging techniques have been used to study and understand brain mechanisms during deception. In this study, we utilized functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to investigate hemodynamic responses to deception in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) at the individual level. The protocol involved a mock theft scenario that was previously used in a functional MRI (fMRI) study of detecting deception. Subjects (N=11) were instructed to steal a ring or a watch and then conceal the item that they stole. Participants then responded to visually presented questions regarding which item they took. While the subjects were answering the questions, their PFC activity was measured using fNIRS. The brain activity associated with deceptive responses demonstrated significant changes in hemoglobin concentrations with respect to the baseline, while the response of truth telling was not statistically different from baseline. The regions of greater activation induced by deception identified by fNIRS were approximately consistent with those reported by the previous fMRI study using a similar protocol. This study demonstrates that fNIRS is a promising new technique to understand hemodynamic and neural correlates of deception and thus to detect deception with the added advantages of being compact, technically easier to implement, and inexpensive compared to functional MRI.

Truthful and deceptive responses are socially and legally important behavior. In a recent year, brain imaging measurement applied to find deception response. However, with these brain imaging techniques, the cognitive brain activities can be determined with stressful for participants. In this study, the pattern of brain activity is characterized with multi - channel near - infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) in the region of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex which is related to response of lying. The sample consisted of two undergraduate students. The subject had to perform specific truthful and deceptive responses tasks by choosing cards. We need to examine the location of detecting deceptive response which chosen randomly by the participant. The method of detection deception was calculated by the area under the curve in the change in concentration oxygenated hemoglobin (HbO(2)) during specific time of performance in task. In this study, the study found that the right group of channels was indicated deceptive task as maximum area value under the curve in the concentration change of HbO(2).

Deception is considered a psychological process by which one individual deliberately attempts to convince another person to accept as true what the liar knows to be false. This paper presents the use of functional near-infrared spectroscopy for deception detection. This technique measures hemodynamic variations in the cortical regions induced by neural activations. The experimental setup involved a mock theft paradigm with ten subjects, where the subjects responded to a set of questions, with each of their answers belonging to one of three categories: Induced Lies, Induced Truths, and Non-Induced responses. The relative changes of the hemodynamic activity in the subject prefrontal cortex were recorded during the experiment. From this data, the changes in blood volume were derived and represented as false color topograms. Finally, a human evaluator used these topograms as a guide to classify each answer into one of the three categories. His performance was compared with that of a support vector machine (SVM) classifier in terms of accuracy, specificity, and sensitivity. The human evaluator achieved an accuracy of 84.33 % in a tri-class problem and 92 % in a bi-class problem (induced vs. non-induced responses). In comparison, the SVM classifier correctly classified 95.63 % of the answers in a tri-class problem using cross-validation for the selection of the best features. These results suggest a tradeoff between accuracy and computational burden. In other words, it is possible for an interviewer to classify each response by only looking at the topogram of the hemodynamic activity, but at the cost of reduced prediction accuracy.

Communication based on informational asymmetries abounds in politics, business, and almost any other form of social interaction. Informational asymmetries may create incentives for the better-informed party to exploit her advantage by misrepresenting information. Using a game-theoretic setting, we investigate the neural basis of deception in human interaction. Unlike in most previous fMRI research on deception, the participants decide themselves whether to lie or not. We find activation within the right temporo-parietal junction (rTPJ), the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), the (pre)cuneus (CUN), and the anterior frontal gyrus (aFG) when contrasting lying with truth telling. Notably, our design also allows for an investigation of the neural foundations of sophisticated deception through telling the truth-when the sender does not expect the receiver to believe her (true) message. Sophisticated deception triggers activation within the same network as plain lies, i.e., we find activity within the rTPJ, the CUN, and aFG. We take this result to show that brain activation can reveal the sender's veridical intention to deceive others, irrespective of whether in fact the sender utters the factual truth or not.

Abstract Cooperation is essential for completing tasks that individuals cannot accomplish alone. Whereas the benefits of cooperation are clear, little is known about its possible negative aspects. Introducing a novel sequential dyadic die-rolling paradigm, we show that collaborative settings provide fertile ground for the emergence of corruption. In the main experimental treatment the outcomes of the two players are perfectly aligned. Player A privately rolls a die, reports the result to player B, who then privately rolls and reports the result as well. Both players are paid the value of the reports if, and only if, they are identical (e.g., if both report 6, each earns 6). Because rolls are truly private, players can inflate their profit by misreporting the actual outcomes. Indeed, the proportion of reported doubles was 489% higher than the expected proportion assuming honesty, 48% higher than when individuals rolled and reported alone, and 96% higher than when lies only benefited the other player. Breaking the alignment in payoffs between player A and player B reduced the extent of brazen lying. Despite player B's central role in determining whether a double was reported, modifying the incentive structure of either player A or player B had nearly identical effects on the frequency of reported doubles. Our results highlight the role of collaboration-particularly on equal terms-in shaping corruption. These findings fit a functional perspective on morality. When facing opposing moral sentiments-to be honest vs. to join forces in collaboration-people often opt for engaging in corrupt collaboration.

Many previous functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies on deception used a paradigm of nstructed lies, which is different than other, more spontaneous forms of lying behavior. The present study aimed to investigate the neural processes underlying spontaneous and instructed lying and truth-telling, and to investigate the different mechanisms involved. This study used a modifiedsic bogambling game with real payoffs in order to induce lying. In the spontaneous sessions, the participants themselves decided whether or not to lie, whereas in the instructed sessions they were explicitly told to respond either honestly or dishonestly. In the spontaneous lying (vs. truth-telling) condition, the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (sACC) showed significantly higher activity, whereas the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC) and inferior parietal lobule (IPL) were more strongly activated when participants spontaneously told the truth (vs. lied). Our results suggest that the extra cognitive control required for suppressing the self-interest motives in spontaneous truth-telling is associated with higher activity in the fronto-parietal network, while the process of negative emotion in spontaneous lying induced greater involvement of the sACC. Although similar to spontaneous deception, instructed deception engenders greater involvement of the right inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), left supplementary motor area (SMA), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), IPL and superior frontal gyrus (SFG) compared to baseline, instructed decisions did not elicit similar activation patterns in the regions of sACC, DLPFC, VLPFC and IPL which were sensitive to either spontaneous truth-telling or lying.

Deception is not a rare occurrence among human behaviors; however, the present brain mapping techniques are insufficient to reveal the neural mechanism of deception under spontaneous or controlled conditions. Interestingly, functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) has emerged as a highly promising neuroimaging technique that enables continuous and noninvasive monitoring of changes in blood oxygenation and blood volume in the human brain. In this study, fNIRS was used in combination with complex network theory to extract the attribute features of the functional brain networks underling deception in subjects exhibiting spontaneous or controlled behaviors. Our findings revealed that the small-world networks of the subjects engaged in spontaneous behaviors exhibited greater clustering coefficients, shorter average path lengths, greater average node degrees, and stronger randomness compared with those of subjects engaged in control behaviors. Consequently, we suggest that small-world network topology is capable of distinguishing well between spontaneous and controlled deceptions.

Abstract Previous studies have demonstrated that the neural basis of deception involves a network of regions including the medial frontal cortex (MFC), superior temporal sulcus (STS), temporo-parietal junction (TPJ), etc. However, to test the actual activity of the brain in the act of deceptive practice itself, existing studies have mainly adopted paradigms of passive deception, where participants are told to lie in certain conditions, and have focused on intra-brain mechanisms in single participants. In order to examine the neural substrates underlying more natural, spontaneous deception in real social interactions, the present study employed a functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) hyperscanning technique to simultaneously measure pairs of participants' fronto-temporal activations in a two-person gambling card-game. We demonstrated higher TPJ activation in deceptive compared to honest acts. Analysis of participants' inter-brain correlation further revealed that the STS is uniquely involved in deception but not in honesty, especially in females. These results suggest that the STS may play a critical role in spontaneous deception due to mentalizing requirements relating to modulating opponents' thoughts. To our knowledge, this study was the first to investigate such inter-brain correlates of deception in real face-to-face interactions, and thus is hoped to provide a new path for future complex social behavior research.