Cognitive mechanisms underlying the age of acquisition effects: Insights from a three-level meta-analysis

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2025.1199

Abstract

Abstract:

Age of acquisition (AoA) refers to the age at which an individual first understands the meaning of a word. Researches revealed that the processing speed of early acquired words is faster and the accuracy is higher, called the AoA effect. To determine the cognitive mechanism underlying the AoA effect, researchers have proposed The Multiple Loci Account, Representation Theory, and Arbitrary Mapping Hypothesis. In order to systematically investigate the cognitive mechanism of the AoA effect, the present study employed a three-level meta-analysis to quantitatively analyze existing literature on the AoA effect. Through the retrieval of articles published before May 15, 2024, the current meta-analysis identified 130 studies, with 10697 participants and 271 effect sizes. Analysis revealed that the effect size of the AoA effect was Hedge’s g = 0.47 (p < 0.001, 95% CI = [0.41, 0.52]). Additionally, the effect size was moderated by task type and word frequency, mainly depending on the semantic relevance across different tasks. However, no significant moderating effects were observed for the target cognitive process, writing system, or the phonological relevance across different tasks. The results of the current meta-analysis indicated that AoA mainly affects the semantic processing stage, and primarily supports the Representation Theory, with early-acquired words having a richer semantic network, thereby facilitating the word processing process.

Key words: picture naming task, word naming task, lexical decision task, age of acquisition effects, three- level meta-analysis

CLC Number:

B842

ZHANG Lu, WANG Ziqian, ZHANG Qingfang. Cognitive mechanisms underlying the age of acquisition effects: Insights from a three-level meta-analysis[J]. Advances in Psychological Science, 2025, 33(7): 1199-1220.

Figures/Tables 5

References 197

[1]	* 白利莉, 陈宝国. (2011). 汉字习得的年龄对词类信息加工的影响. 心理科学, 34(2), 343-347. https://doi.org/10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.2011.02.031
[2]	* 白学军, 王丽红, 吕勇, 胡伟. (2010). 词汇的获得年龄效应: ERP研究. 心理学探新, 30(1), 21-26. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1003-5184.2010.01.005
[3]	* 陈宝国, 王立新, 王璐璐, 彭聃龄. (2004). 词汇习得年龄和频率对词汇识别的影响. 心理科学, 27(5), 1060-1064. https://doi.org/10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.2004.05.009
[4]	* 陈宝国, 尤文平, 张亚峰, 刘文焕. (2010). 汉字早期字形加工阶段的习得年龄效应. 心理科学, 33(3), 726-728. https://doi.org/10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.2010.03.031
[5]	* 陈宝国, 尤文平, 周会霞. (2007). 汉语词汇习得的年龄效应: 语义假设的证据. 心理学报, 39(1), 9-17.
[6]	* 陈新葵, 张积家. (2010). 影响汉语动词、名词识别因素的回归分析. 心理科学, 33(1), 60-63. https://doi.org/10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.2010.01.014.
[7]	* 陈永香, 朱莉琪. (2015). 影响动作图片命名的因素. 心理学报, 47(1), 11-18. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1041.2015.00011
[8]	郭英, 田鑫, 胡东, 白书琳, 周蜀溪. (2023). 羞愧对亲社会行为影响的三水平元分析. 心理科学进展, 31(3), 371-385. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.00371 doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2023.00371 URL
[9]	* 郝美玲, 刘友谊, 舒华, 程辰曦. (2003). 汉语图片命名中获得年龄的作用. 心理与行为研究, 1(4), 268-273.
[10]	* 郝爽, 陈俊, 薛路芳. (2014). 听觉条件下词汇获得年龄效应产生机制的初探. 心理科学, 37(2), 277-282. https://doi.org/10.16719/j.cnki.1671-6981.2014.02.006
[11]	蓝媛美, 李超平, 王佳燕, 孟雪. (2022). 员工跨界行为的收益与代价: 元分析的证据. 心理学报, 54(6), 665-683. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1041.2022.00665 doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2022.00665 URL
[12]	* 李丛, 张清芳, 黄韧. (2017). 词汇获得年龄在物体和动作图画命名中的不同作用. 心理学探新, 37(3), 220-225.
[13]	* 娄昊, 李丛, 张清芳. (2019). 习得年龄对客体和动作图画口语命名的不同影响: ERP研究. 心理学报, 51(2), 143-153. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1041.2019.00143 doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2019.00143 URL
[14]	孟现鑫, 颜晨, 俞德霖, 高树玲, 傅小兰. (2024). 童年创伤与网络成瘾关系的三水平元分析. 心理科学进展, 32(7), 1087-1103. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1042.2024.01087 doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2024.01087 URL
[15]	孟现鑫, 俞德霖, 陈怡静, 张玲, 傅小兰. (2023). 儿童期创伤与共情的关系: 一项三水平元分析. 心理学报, 55(8), 1285-1300. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.01285 doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2023.01285 URL
[16]	彭聃龄, 郭德俊, 张素兰. (1985). 再认性同一判断中汉字信息的提取. 心理学报, 3, 227-234.
[17]	* 王丽红, 王永妍, 闫国利. (2010). 词汇获得年龄效应的眼动研究. 心理与行为研究, 8(4), 289-295.
[18]	张积家, 王娟, 印丛. (2014). 声符和义符在形声字语音、语义提取中的作用. 心理学报, 46(7), 885-900. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1041.2014.00885
[19]	* 张振军, 丁国盛, 陈宝国. (2011). 汉字习得的年龄效应:语音完整性假设的检验. 心理发展与教育, 27(6), 577-583. https://doi.org/10.16187/j.cnki.issn1001-4918.2011.06.007
[20]	赵子卿, 余锦婷, 陈嘉彦, 王芸茹, 黄佳, 陈楚侨. (2025). 精神病临床高危人群的症状和功能改变: 一项系统综述和三水平元分析. 心理科学进展, 33(1), 42-61. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1042.2025.0042 doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2025.0042 URL
[21]	诸彦含, 贺彬, 孙蕾. (2024). 状态权力感对亲社会行为的影响: 一项三水平元分析. 心理科学进展, 32(11), 1786-1799. doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2024.01786
[22]	* Adorni, R., Manfredi, M., & Proverbio, A. M. (2013). Since when or how often? Dissociating the roles of age of acquisition (AoA) and lexical frequency in early visual word processing. Brain and Language, 124(1), 132-141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2012.11.005 doi: 10.1016/j.bandl.2012.11.005 URL pmid: 23314421
[23]	* Alario, F. X., Ferrand, L., Laganaro, M., New, B., Frauenfelder, U. H., & Segui, J. (2004). Predictors of picture naming speed. Behavior Research Methods Instruments & Computers, 36(1), 140-155. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03195559
[24]	Anderson, K., & Cottrell, G. (2001). Age of acquisition in connectionist networks. In Proceedings of the 23rd annual meeting of the cognitive science society. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
[25]	* Assink, E. M. H., Van Well, S., & Knuijt, P. P. N. A. (2003). Contrasting effects of age of acquisition in lexical decision and letter detection. The American Journal of Psychology, 116(3), 367-387. https://doi.org/10.2307/1423499
[26]	Assink, M., & Wibbelink, C. J. M. (2016). Fitting three-level meta-analytic models in R: A step-by-step tutorial. Tutorials in Quantitative Methods for Psychology, 12(3), 154-174. https://doi.org/10.20982/tqmp.12.3.p154
[27]	* Baek, H., Gordon, P. C., & Choi, W. (2024). Effects of age and word frequency on Korean visual word recognition: Evidence from a web-based large-scale lexical-decision task. Psychology and Aging, 39(3), 231-244. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000793
[28]	* Bakhtiar, M., Nilipour, R., & Weekes, B. S. (2013). Predictors of timed picture naming in Persian. Behavior Research Methods, 45(3), 834-841. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-012-0298-6 doi: 10.3758/s13428-012-0298-6 URL pmid: 23292568
[29]	* Bakhtiar, M., Su, I. F., Lee, H. K., & Weekes, B. S. (2016). Neural correlates of age of acquisition on visual word recognition in Persian. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 39, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2015.12.001
[30]	Balota, D. A., & Chumbley, J. I. (1984). Are lexical decisions a good measure of lexical access? The role of word frequency in the neglected decision stage. Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance, 10(3), 340-357. https://doi.org/10.1037//0096-1523.10.3.340
[31]	* Balota, D. A., Cortese, M. J., Sergent-Marshall, S. D., Spieler, D. H., & Yap, M. J. (2004). Visual word recognition of single-syllable words. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133(2), 283-316. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.133.2.283
[32]	* Bangalore, S., Robson, H., & Astell, A. J. (2022). Standardizing norms for 180 coloured Snodgrass and Vanderwart pictures in Kannada language. Plos One, 17(4), e0266359. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266359 doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0266359 URL pmid: 35381039
[33]	* Barry, C., Hirsh, K. W., Johnston, R. A., & Williams, C. L. (2001). Age of acquisition, word frequency, and the locus of repetition priming of picture naming. Journal of Memory and Language, 44(3), 350-375. https://doi.org/10.1006/jmla.2000.2743
[34]	* Barry, C., Johnston, R. A., & Wood, R. F. (2006). Effects of age of acquisition, age, and repetition priming on object naming. Visual Cognition, 13(7-8), 911-927. https://doi.org/10.1080/13506280544000101
[35]	* Barry, C., Morrison, C. M., & Ellis, A. W. (1997). Naming the Snodgrass and Vanderwart pictures: Effects of age of acquisition, frequency and name agreement. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section a-Human Experimental Psychology, 50(3), 560-585. https://doi.org/10.1080/027249897392026
[36]	Belke, E., Brysbaert, M., Meyer, A. S., & Ghyselinck, M. (2005). Age of acquisition effects in picture naming: Evidence for a lexical-semantic competition hypothesis. Cognition, 96(2), B45-B54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2004.11.006
[37]	Ben-Shachar, M., Lüdecke, D., & Makowski, D. (2020). Effectsize: Estimation of effect size indices and standardized parameters. Journal of Open Source Software, 5(56), 12815. https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.02815
[38]	* Bonin, P., Barry, C., Méot, A., & Chalard, M. (2004). The influence of age of acquisition in word reading and other tasks: A never ending story? Journal of Memory and Language, 50(4), 456-476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2004.02.001
[39]	* Bonin, P., Boyer, B., Méot, A., Fayol, M., & Droit, S. (2004). Psycholinguistic norms for action photographs in French and their relationships with spoken and written latencies. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 36(1), 127-139.
[40]	* Bonin, P., Chalard, M., Méot, A., & Fayol, M. (2002). The determinants of spoken and written picture naming latencies. British Journal of Psychology, 93(1), 89-114. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712602162463
[41]	* Bonin, P., Peereman, R., Malardier, N., Méot, A., & Chalard, M. (2003). A new set of 299 pictures for psycholinguistic studies: French norms for name agreement, image agreement, conceptual familiarity, visual complexity, image variability, age of acquisition, and naming latencies. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 35(1), 158-167. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03195507
[42]	* Brown, G. D. A., & Watson, F. L. (1987). First in, first out: Word learning age and spoken word frequency as predictors of word familiarity and word naming latency. Memory & Cognition, 15(3), 208-216. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03197718
[43]	Brysbaert, M., & Ellis, A. W. (2016). Aphasia and age of acquisition: Are early-learned words more resilient? Aphasiology, 30(11), 1240-1263. https://doi.org/10.1080/02687038.2015.1106439
[44]	Brysbaert, M., & Ghyselinck, M. (2006). The effect of age of acquisition: Partly frequency related, partly frequency independent. Visual Cognition, 13(7-8), 992-1011. https://doi.org/10.1080/13506280544000165
[45]	Brysbaert, M., Lagrou, E., & Stevens, M. (2017). Visual word recognition in a second language: A test of the lexical entrenchment hypothesis with lexical decision times. Bilingualism, 20(3), 530-548. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728916000353
[46]	* Brysbaert, M., Van Wijnendaele, I., & De Deyne, S. (2000). Age-of-acquisition effects in semantic processing tasks. Acta Psychologica, 104(2), 215-226. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0001-6918(00)00021-4 URL pmid: 10900706
[47]	* Burani, C., Arduino, L. S., & Barca, L. (2007). Frequency, not age of acquisition, affects Italian word naming. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 19(6), 828-866. https://doi.org/10.1080/09541440600847946
[48]	* Busch, J. L., Haeussler, F. S., Domahs, F., Timmermann, L., Weber, I., & Oehrn, C. R. (2022). German normative data with naming latencies for 283 action pictures and 600 action verbs. Behavior Research Methods, 54(2), 649-662. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-021-01647-w
[49]	Cao, F., Peng, D., Liu, L., Jin, Z., Fan, N., Deng, Y., & Booth, J. R. (2009). Developmental differences of neurocognitive networks for phonological and semantic processing in Chinese word reading. Human Brain Mapping, 30(3), 797-809. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.20546 doi: 10.1002/hbm.20546 URL pmid: 18330872
[50]	Card, N. A. (2016). Applied meta-analysis for social science research. The Guilford Press.
[51]	Carroll, J. B., & White, M. N. (1973a). Age-of-acquisition norms for 220 picturable nouns. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 12(5), 563-576. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(73)80036-2
[52]	* Carroll, J. B., & White, M. N. (1973b). Word frequency and age of acquisition as determiners of picture-naming latency. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 25(1), 85-95, doi: 10.1080/14640747308400325.
[53]	Carter, B. T., & Luke, S. G. (2020). Best practices in eye tracking research. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 155, 49-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2020.05.010 doi: S0167-8760(20)30145-8 URL pmid: 32504653
[54]	* Catling, J. C., Dent, K., & Williamson, S. (2008). Age of acquisition, not word frequency affects object recognition: Evidence from the effects of visual degradation. Acta Psychologica, 129(1), 130-137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.05.005 doi: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.05.005 URL pmid: 18599003
[55]	* Catling, J. C., & Elsherif, M. M. (2020). The hunt for the age of acquisition effect: It's in the links. Acta Psychologica, 209, 103138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2020.103138
[56]	* Catling, J. C., & Johnston, R. A. (2006a). Age of acquisition effects on an object-name verification task. British Journal of Psychology, 97(1), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712605x53515
[57]	* Catling, J. C., & Johnston, R. A. (2006b). Effects of age of acquisition and priming on picture naming. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 59(8), 1443-1453. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470210500214291
[58]	* Catling, J. C., & Johnston, R. A. (2006c). The effects of age of acquisition on an object classification task. Visual Cognition, 13(7-8), 968-980. https://doi.org/10.1080/13506280544000138
[59]	* Catling, J. C., & Johnston, R. A. (2009). The varying effects of age of acquisition. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62(1), 50-62. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470210701814352
[60]	* Chalard, M., & Bonin, P. (2006). Age-of-acquisition effects in picture naming: Are they structural and/or semantic in nature? Visual Cognition, 13(7-8), 864-883. https://doi.org/10.1080/13506280544000084
[61]	* Chang, Y. N., & Lee, C. Y. (2020). Age of acquisition effects on traditional Chinese character naming and lexical decision. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 27(6), 1317-1324. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-020-01787-8
[62]	Chang, Y. N., Monaghan, P., & Welbourne, S. (2019). A computational model of reading across development: Effects of literacy onset on language processing. Journal of Memory and Language, 108, 104025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2019.05.003
[63]	* Chen, B. G., Dent, K., You, W., & Wu, G. (2009). Age of acquisition affects early orthographic processing during Chinese character recognition. Acta Psychologica, 130(3), 196-203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.12.004 doi: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.12.004 URL pmid: 19162255
[64]	* Chen, B. G., Zhou, H. X., Dunlap, S., & Perfetti, C. A. (2007). Age of acquisition effects in reading Chinese: Evidence in favour of the arbitrary mapping hypothesis. British Journal of Psychology, 98(3), 499-516. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712606x165484
[65]	Cheung, M. W. L. (2014). Modeling dependent effect sizes with three-level meta-analyses: A structural equation modeling approach. Psychological Methods, 19(2), 211-229. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032968 doi: 10.1037/a0032968 URL pmid: 23834422
[66]	Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155-159. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155 doi: 10.1037//0033-2909.112.1.155 URL pmid: 19565683
[67]	* Colombo, L., & Burani, C. (2002). The influence of age of acquisition, root frequency, and context availability in processing nouns and verbs. Brain and Language, 81(1-3), 398-411. https://doi.org/10.1006/brln.2001.2533 URL pmid: 12081408
[68]	* Cortese, M. J., & Khanna, M. M. (2007). Age of acquisition predicts naming and lexical-decision performance above and beyond 22 other predictor variables: An analysis of 2, 342 words. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60(8), 1072-1082. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470210701315467
[69]	Cortese, M. J., Toppi, S., Khanna, M. M., & Santo, J. B. (2020). AoA effects in reading aloud and lexical decision: Locating the (semantic) locus in terms of the number of backward semantic associations. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Experimental Psychology, 73(11), 2036-2044. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747021820940302
[70]	Cortese, M. J., Yates, M., Schock, J., & Vilks, L. (2018). Examining word processing via a megastudy of conditional reading aloud. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 71(11), 2295-2313. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747021817741269
[71]	* Cuetos, F., & Alija, M. (2003). Normative data and naming times for action pictures. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 35(1), 168-177. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03195508
[72]	* Cuetos, F., & Barbon, A. (2006). Word naming in Spanish. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 18(3), 415-436. https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320500165896
[73]	* Cuetos, F., Barbón, A., Urrutia, M., & Domínguez, A. (2009). Determining the time course of lexical frequency and age of acquisition using ERP. Clinical Neurophysiology, 120(2), 285-294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2008.11.003 doi: 10.1016/j.clinph.2008.11.003 URL pmid: 19101202
[74]	* Cuetos, F., Ellis, A. W., & Alvarez, B. (1999). Naming times for the Snodgrass and Vanderwart pictures in Spanish. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 31(4), 650-658. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03200741
[75]	* Davies, R., Wilson, M., Cuetos, F., & Burani, C. (2014). Reading in Spanish and Italian: Effects of age of acquisition in transparent orthographies? Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 67(9), 1808-1825. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2013.872155
[76]	* De Deyne, S., & Storms, G. (2007). Age-of-acquisition differences in young and older adults affect latencies in lexical decision and semantic categorization. Acta Psychologica, 124(3), 274-295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2006.03.007 URL pmid: 16777041
[77]	* Dell'Acqua, R., Lotto, L., & Remo, J. (2000). Naming times and standardized norms for the Italian PD/DPSS set of 266 pictures: Direct comparisons with American, English, French, and Spanish published databases. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 32(4), 588-615. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03200832
[78]	* den Hollander, J., Jonkers, R., Mariën, P., & Bastiaanse, R. (2019). Identifying the speech production stages in early and late adulthood by using electroencephalography. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 13, 298-298. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2019.00298 doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00298 URL pmid: 31551734
[79]	* Dent, K., Catling, J. C., & Johnston, R. A. (2007). Age of acquisition affects object recognition: Evidence from visual duration thresholds. Acta Psychologica, 125(3), 301-318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2006.08.004 URL pmid: 17055443
[80]	* Dewhurst, S. A., & Barry, C. (2006). Dissociating word frequency and age of acquisition: The Klein effect revived (and reversed). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 32(4), 919-924. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.32.4.919
[81]	Dirix, N., & Duyck, W. (2017). An eye movement corpus study of the age-of-acquisition effect. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 24(6), 1915-1921. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-017-1233-8
[82]	Dodell-Feder, D., & Tamir, D. I. (2018). Fiction reading has a small positive impact on social cognition: A meta- analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 147(11), 1713-1727.
[83]	Duval, S., & Tweedie, R. (2000). Trim and fill: A simple funnel-plot-based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Biometrics, 56(2), 455-463. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0006-341X.2000.00455.x doi: 10.1111/j.0006-341x.2000.00455.x URL pmid: 10877304
[84]	Egger, M., Smith, G. D., Schneider, M., & Minder, C. (1997). Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. British Medical Journal, 315(7109), 629-634. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629
[85]	Ellis, A. W., & Lambon Ralph, M. A. (2000). Age of acquisition effects in adult lexical processing reflect loss of plasticity in maturing systems: Insights from connectionist networks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 26(5), 1103-1123. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.26.5.1103
[86]	* Ellis, A. W., & Morrison, C. M. (1998). Real age-of- acquisition effects in lexical retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24(2), 515-523. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.24.2.515
[87]	Elsherif, M. M., & Catling, J. C. (2022). Age of acquisition effects on the decomposition of compound words. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 34(3), 325-338. https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2021.2013246 doi: 10.1080/20445911.2021.2013246 URL
[88]	* Elsherif, M. M., Catling, J. C., & Frisson, S. (2020). Two words as one: A multi-naming investigation of the age-of- acquisition effect in compound-word processing. Memory & Cognition, 48(4), 511-525. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-019-00986-6
[89]	Elsherif, M. M., Preece, E., & Catling, J. C. (2023). Age-of-acquisition effects: A literature review. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 49(5), 812-847. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0001215
[90]	* Fargier, R., & Laganaro, M. (2020). Neural dynamics of the production of newly acquired words relative to well- known words. Brain Research, 1727, 146557. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2019.146557
[91]	* Fiebach, C. J., Friederici, A. D., Muller, K., von Cramon, D. Y., & Hernandez, A. E. (2003). Distinct brain representations for early and late learned words. Neuroimage, 19(4), 1627-1637. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1053-8119(03)00227-1 URL pmid: 12948717
[92]	* Gerhand, S., & Barry, C. (1998). Word frequency effects in oral reading are not merely age-of-acquisition effects in disguise. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 24(2), 267-283. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.24.2.267
[93]	* Gerhand, S., & Barry, C. (1999a). Age-of-acquisition and frequency effects in speeded word naming. Cognition, 73(2), B27-B36. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(99)00052-9
[94]	* Gerhand, S., & Barry, C. (1999b). Age of acquisition, word frequency, and the role of phonology in the lexical decision task. Memory & Cognition, 27(4), 592-602. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03211553
[95]	* Ghyselinck, M., Custers, R., & Brysbaert, M. (2004). The effect of age of acquisition in visual word processing: Further evidence for the semantic hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30(2), 550-554. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.30.2.550
[96]	* Ghyselinck, M., Lewis, M. B., & Brysbaert, M. (2004). Age of acquisition and the cumulative-frequency hypothesis: A review of the literature and a new multi-task investigation. Acta Psychologica, 115(1), 43-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2003.11.002 URL pmid: 14734241
[97]	* Gilhooly, K. J. (1984). Word age-of-acquisition and residence time in lexical memory as factors in word naming. Current Psychological Research & Reviews, 3(2), 24-31. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02686547
[98]	* Gilhooly, K. J., & Gilhooly, M. L. (1979). Age-of- acquisition effects in lexical and episodic memory tasks. Memory & Cognition, 7(3), 214-223. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03197541
[99]	* Gilhooly, K. J., & Logie, R. H. (1981a). Word age-of- acquisition, reading latencies and auditory recognition. Current Psychology, 1(4), 251-262. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03186735
[100]	* Gilhooly, K. J., & Logie, R. H. (1981b). Word age-of- acquisition and visual recognition thresholds. Current Psychology, 1(3), 215-225. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03186732
[101]	* Gilhooly, K. J., & Logie, R. H. (1982). Word age-of- acquisition and lexical decision making. Acta Psychologica, 50(1), 21-34, doi: 10.1016/0001-6918(82)90048-8.
[102]	* González-Nosti, M., Barbón, A., Rodríguez-Ferreiro, J., & Cuetos, F. (2014). Effects of the psycholinguistic variables on the lexical decision task in Spanish: A study with 2, 765 words. Behavior Research Methods, 46(2), 517-525. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-013-0383-5 doi: 10.3758/s13428-013-0383-5 URL pmid: 24197707
[103]	Grainger, J., & Holcomb, P. J. (2009). Watching the word go by: On the time-course of component processes in visual word recognition. Language and Linguistics Compass, 3(1), 128-156. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00121.x doi: 10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00121.x URL pmid: 19750025
[104]	* Gullick, M. M., & Juhasz, B. J. (2008). Age of acquisition's effect on memory for semantically associated word pairs. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 61(8), 1177-1185. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470210802013391
[105]	Haman, E., Luniewska, M., Hansen, P., Simonsen, H. G., Chiat, S., Bjekic, J., … Armon-Lotem, S. (2017). Noun and verb knowledge in monolingual preschool children across 17 languages: Data from Cross-linguistic Lexical Tasks (LITMUS-CLT). Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 31(11-12), 818-843. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699206.2017.1308553
[106]	Han, J. I., & Kim, J. Y. (2017). The influence of orthography on the production of alphabetic, second-language allophones by speakers of a non-alphabetic language. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 46(4), 963-982. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-016-9474-7
[107]	Han, J. I., Kim, J. Y., & Choi, T. H. (2021). The role of orthography in lexical processing of the phonological variants in second language. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 50(2), 437-445. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-020-09725-4
[108]	* Havelka, J., & Tomita, I. (2006). Age of acquisition in naming Japanese words. Visual Cognition, 13(7-8), 981-991. https://doi.org/10.1080/13506280544000156
[109]	* Hernandez, A. E., & Fiebach, C. J. (2006). The brain bases of reading late learned words: Evidence from functional MRI. Visual Cognition, 13(7-8), 1027-1043. https://doi.org/10.1080/13506280544000183
[110]	Hernandez, A. E., & Li, P. (2007). Age of acquisition: Its neural and computational mechanisms. Psychological Bulletin, 133(4), 638-650. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.4.638 doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.133.4.638 URL pmid: 17592959
[111]	Higgins, J. P. T., Thompson, S. G., Deeks, J. J., & Altman, D. G. (2003). Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. British Medical Journal, 327(7414), 557-560.
[112]	* Holmes, S. J., & Ellis, A. W. (2006). Age of acquisition and typicality effects in three object processing tasks. Visual Cognition, 13(7-8), 884-910. https://doi.org/10.1080/13506280544000093
[113]	* Izura, C., & Hernández-Muñoz, N. (2017). The role of semantics in Spanish word recognition: An insight from lexical decision and categorization tasks. Open Linguistics, 3(1), 500-515. https://doi.org/10.1515/opli-2017-0025
[114]	* Izura, C., & Playfoot, D. (2012). A normative study of acronyms and acronym naming. Behavior Research Methods, 44(3), 862-889. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-011-0175-8 doi: 10.3758/s13428-011-0175-8 URL pmid: 22180103
[115]	* Johnson, C. J. & Clark, J. M. (1988). Children's picture naming difficulty and errors: Effects of age of acquisition, uncertainty, and name generality. Applied Psycholinguistics, 9(4), 351-365, doi: 10.1017/S0142716400008055.
[116]	Johnston, R. A., & Barry, C. (2006). Age of acquisition and lexical processing. Visual Cognition, 13(7-8), 789-845. https://doi.org/10.1080/13506280544000066
[117]	* Johnston, R. A., Dent, K., Humphreys, G. W., & Barry, C. (2010). British-English norms and naming times for a set of 539 pictures: The role of age of acquisition. Behavior Research Methods, 42(2), 461-469. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.42.2.461 doi: 10.3758/BRM.42.2.461 URL pmid: 20479176
[118]	Juhasz, B. J. (2005). Age-of-acquisition effects in word and picture identification. Psychological Bulletin, 131(5), 684-712. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.5.684 URL pmid: 16187854
[119]	* Karimi, H., & Diaz, M. (2020). When phonological neighborhood density both facilitates and impedes: Age of acquisition and name agreement interact with phonological neighborhood during word production. Memory & Cognition, 48(6), 1061-1072. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-020-01042-4
[120]	Kauschke, C., & Von Frankenberg, J. (2008). The differential influence of lexical parameters on naming latencies in German. A study on noun and verb picture naming. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 37(4), 243-257. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-007-9068-5 doi: 10.1007/s10936-007-9068-5 URL pmid: 18095167
[121]	* Khwaileh, T., Body, R., & Herbert, R. (2014). A normative database and determinants of lexical retrieval for 186 Arabic nouns:Effects of psycholinguistic and morpho-syntactic variables on naming latency. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 43(6), 749-769. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-013-9277-z
[122]	Kuperman, V. (2013). Accentuate the positive: Semantic access in English compounds. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 203-203. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00203 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00203 URL pmid: 23630512
[123]	* Laganaro, M. (2014). ERP topographic analyses from concept to articulation in word production studies. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 493-493. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00493 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00493 URL pmid: 24904505
[124]	* Laganaro, M., & Perret, C. (2011). Comparing electrophysiological correlates of word production in immediate and delayed naming through the analysis of word age of acquisition effects. Brain Topography, 24(1), 19-29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10548-010-0162-x doi: 10.1007/s10548-010-0162-x URL pmid: 20938730
[125]	* Laganaro, M., Valente, A., & Perret, C. (2012). Time course of word production in fast and slow speakers: A high density ERP topographic study. Neuroimage, 59(4), 3881-3888. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.10.082 doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.10.082 URL pmid: 22079505
[126]	* Lambon Ralph, M. A., & Ehsan, S. (2006). Age of acquisition effects depend on the mapping between representations and the frequency of occurrence: Empirical and computational evidence. Visual Cognition, 13(7-8), 928-948. https://doi.org/10.1080/13506280544000110
[127]	* Laws, K. R., Leeson, V. C., & Gale, T. M. (2002). The effect of 'masking' on picture naming. Cortex, 38(2), 137-147. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0010-9452(08)70646-4 URL pmid: 12056685
[128]	Levelt, W. J. M., Roelofs, A., & Meyer, A. S. (1999). A theory of lexical access in speech production. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22(1), 1-38. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x99001776 doi: 10.1017/s0140525x99001776 URL pmid: 11301520
[129]	Levitt, A. G., & Healy, A. F. (1985). The roles of phoneme frequency, similarity, and availability in the experimental elicitation of speech errors. Journal of Memory and Language, 24(6), 717-733. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-596X(85)90055-5
[130]	Light, R. J., & Pillemer, D. B. (1984). Summing up: The science of reviewing research. Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvk12px9
[131]	Lipsey, M. W., & Wilson, D. B. (2001). Practical meta- analysis. Sage Publications, Inc..
[132]	* Liu, Y., Hao, M., Li, P., & Shu, H. (2011). Timed picture naming norms for Mandarin Chinese. Plos One, 6(1), e16505. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0016505
[133]	* Liu, Y., Hao, M., Shu, H., Tan, L. H., & Weekes, B. S. (2008). Age-of-acquisition effects on oral reading in Chinese. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 15(2), 344-350. https://doi.org/10.3758/pbr.15.2.344
[134]	Lukatela, G., & Turvey, M. T. (1994). Visual lexical access is initially phonological: I. Evidence from associative priming by words, homophones, and pseudohomophones. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 123(2), 107-128. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.123.2.107
[135]	* Menenti, L., & Burani, C. (2007). What causes the effect of age of acquisition in lexical processing? Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60(5), 652-660. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470210601100126 doi: 10.1080/17470210601100126 URL pmid: 17455073
[136]	* Meschyan, G., & Hernandez, A. (2002). Age of acquisition and word frequency: Determinants of object-naming speed and accuracy. Memory & Cognition, 30(2), 262-269. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03195287
[137]	* Monaghan, J., & Ellis, A. W. (2002a). Age of acquisition and the completeness of phonological representations. Reading and Writing, 15(7-8), 759-788.
[138]	* Monaghan, J., & Ellis, A. W. (2002b). What exactly interacts with spelling-sound consistency in word naming? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 28(1), 183-206. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.28.1.183
[139]	Monaghan, P., & Ellis, A. W. (2010). Modeling reading development: Cumulative, incremental learning in a computational model of word naming. Journal of Memory and Language, 63(4), 506-525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2010.08.003
[140]	Moore, V., Smith-Spark, J., & Valentine, T. (2004). The effects of age of acquisition on object perception. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 16(3), 417-439. https://doi.org/10.1080/09541440340000097
[141]	Morris, P. E. (1981). Age of acquisition, imagery, recall, and the limitations of multiple-regression analysis. Memory & Cognition, 9(3), 277-282. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03196961
[142]	Morrison, C. M., Chappell, T. D., & Ellis, A. W. (1997). Age of acquisition norms for a large set of object names and their relation to adult estimates and other variables. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A: Human Experimental Psychology, 50(3), 528-559. https://doi.org/10.1080/027249897392017
[143]	* Morrison, C. M., & Ellis, A. W. (1995). Roles of word frequency and age of acquisition in word naming and lexical decision. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 21(1), 116-133. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.21.1.116
[144]	* Morrison, C. M., & Ellis, A. W. (2000). Real age of acquisition effects in word naming and lexical decision. British Journal of Psychology, 91(2), 167-180. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712600161763
[145]	* Morrison, C. M., Ellis, A. W., & Quinlan, P. T. (1992). Age of acquisition, not word frequency, affects object naming, not object recognition. Memory & Cognition, 20(6), 705-714. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03202720
[146]	* Morrison, C. M., & Gibbons, Z. C. (2006). Lexical determinants of semantic processing speed. Visual Cognition, 13(7-8), 949-967. https://doi.org/10.1080/13506280544000129
[147]	* Morrison, C. M., Hirsh, K. W., Chappell, T., & Ellis, A. W. (2002). Age and age of acquisition: An evaluation of the cumulative frequency hypothesis. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 14(4), 435-459. https://doi.org/10.1080/09541440143000159
[148]	* Morrison, C. M., Hirsh, K. W., & Duggan, G. B. (2003). Age of acquisition, ageing, and verb production: Normative and experimental data. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A: Human Experimental Psychology, 56(4), 705-730. https://doi.org/10.1080/02724980244000594 URL pmid: 12745837
[149]	* Nagy, W., Anderson, R. C., Schommer, M., Scott, J. A., & Stallman, A. C. (1989). Morphological families in the internal lexicon. Reading Research Quarterly, 24(3), 262-282. https://doi.org/10.2307/747770
[150]	National Institutes of Health. (2021). Study Quality Assessment Tools. Retrieved August 23, 2024, from https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/study-quality-assessment-tools
[151]	* Navarrete, E., Scaltritti, M., Mulatti, C., & Peressotti, F. (2013). Age-of-acquisition effects in delayed picture- naming tasks. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 20(1), 148-153. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-012-0310-2
[152]	* Nishimoto, T., Miyawaki, K., Ueda, T., Une, Y., & Takahashi, M. (2005). Japanese normative set of 359 pictures. Behavior Research Methods, 37(3), 398-416. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03192709 URL pmid: 16405135
[153]	Pastor, D. A., & Lazowski, R. A. (2018). On the multilevel nature of meta-analysis: A tutorial, comparison of software programs, and discussion of analytic choices. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 53(1), 74-89. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2017.1365684 doi: 10.1080/00273171.2017.1365684 URL pmid: 28952787
[154]	* Perret, C., Bonin, P., & Laganaro, M. (2014). Exploring the multiple-level hypothesis of AoA effects in spoken and written object naming using a topographic ERP analysis. Brain and Language, 135, 20-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2014.04.006 doi: 10.1016/j.bandl.2014.04.006 URL pmid: 24887390
[155]	* Pind, J., & Tryggvadóttir, H. B. (2002). Determinants of picture naming times in Icelandic. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 43(3), 221-226. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9450.00290 URL pmid: 12184477
[156]	* Ploetz, D. M., & Yates, M. (2016). Age of acquisition and imageability: A cross-task comparison. Journal of Research in Reading, 39(1), 37-49. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9817.12040
[157]	* Räling, R., Hanne, S., Schröder, A., Keßler, C., & Wartenburger, I. (2017). Judging the animacy of words: The influence of typicality and age of acquisition in a semantic decision task. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 70(10), 2094-2104. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2016.1223704
[158]	* Räling, R., Holzgrefe-Lang, J., Schröder, A., & Wartenburger, I. (2015). On the influence of typicality and age of acquisition on semantic processing: Diverging evidence from behavioural and ERP responses. Neuropsychologia, 75, 186-200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.05.031 doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.05.031 URL pmid: 26032580
[159]	Raman, I. (2006). On the age-of-acquisition effects in word naming and orthographic transparency: Mapping specific or universal? Visual Cognition, 13(7-8), 1044-1053. https://doi.org/10.1080/13506280500153200
[160]	* Raman, I. (2011). The role of age of acquisition in picture and word naming in dyslexic adults. British Journal of Psychology, 102(3), 328-339. https://doi.org/10.1348/000712610x522572 doi: 10.1348/000712610X522572 URL pmid: 21751992
[161]	* Raman, I. (2018). The role of context on age of acquisition effect:Strategic control in word naming in Turkish. In D. Buğa & M. C. Ögeyik (Eds.), Psycholinguistics and cognition in language processing (pp. 19-48). IGI Global.
[162]	* Raman, I., Raman, E. İkier, S., Kilecioğlu, E., Uzun, E. D., & Zeyveli, Ş. (2018). Differential effects of age of acquisition and frequency on memory: Evidence from free recall of pictures and words in Turkish. Writing Systems Research, 10(1), 1-14.
[163]	Rochford, G., & Williams, M. (1962a). I The relationship between nominal dysphasia and the acquisition of vocabulary in childhood. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 25(3), 222-227. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.25.3.222
[164]	Rochford, G., & Williams, M. (1962b). II Experimental production of naming disorders in normal people. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 25(3), 228-233. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.25.3.228
[165]	* Roodenrys, S., Hulme, C., Alban, J., Ellis, A. W., & Brown, G. D. A. (1994). Effects of word frequency and age of acquisition on short-term memory span. Memory & Cognition, 22(6), 695-701. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03209254
[166]	Rothstein, H., Sutton, A. J., & Borenstein, M. (2005). Publication bias in meta-analysis: Prevention, assessment and adjustments. Wiley.
[167]	Rubenstein, H., Lewis, S. S., & Rubenstein, M. A. (1971). Evidence for phonemic recoding in visual word recognition. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 10(6), 645-657. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(71)80071-3
[168]	* Schwitter, V., Boyer, B., Meot, A., Bonin, P., & Laganardo, M. (2004). French normative data and naming times for action pictures. Behavior Research Methods Instruments & Computers, 36(3), 564-576. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03195603
[169]	Seidenberg, M. S., & McClelland, J. L. (1989). A distributed, developmental model of word recognition and naming. Psychological Review, 96(4), 523-568. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.96.4.523 doi: 10.1037/0033-295x.96.4.523 URL pmid: 2798649
[170]	* Sereno, S. C., & O'Donnell, P. J. (2009). Participant and word gender in age of acquisition effects: The role of gender socialization. Sex Roles, 61(7-8), 510-518. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9649-x
[171]	* Severens, E., Van Lommel, S., Ratinckx, E., & Hartsuiker, R. J. (2005). Timed picture naming norms for 590 pictures in Dutch. Acta Psychologica, 119(2), 159-187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2005.01.002 URL pmid: 15877979
[172]	* Shao, Z., Roelofs, A., & Meyer, A. S. (2014). Predicting naming latencies for action pictures: Dutch norms. Behavior Research Methods, 46(1), 274-283. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-013-0358-6 doi: 10.3758/s13428-013-0358-6 URL pmid: 23771428
[173]	* Snodgrass, J. G., & Yuditsky, T. (1996). Naming times for the Snodgrass and Vanderwart pictures. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 28(4), 516-536. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03200540
[174]	* Song, D., & Li, D. (2021). Psycholinguistic norms for 3, 783 two-character words in simplified Chinese. Sage Open, 11(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211054495
[175]	* Spataro, P., Longobardi, E., Saraulli, D., & Rossi-Arnaud, C. (2013). Interactive effects of age-of-acquisition and repetition priming in the lexical decision task: A multiple-loci account. Experimental Psychology, 60(4), 235-242. https://doi.org/10.1027/1618-3169/a000192 doi: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000192 URL pmid: 23422658
[176]	Steyvers, M., & Tenenbaum, J. B. (2005). The large-scale structure of semantic networks: Statistical analyses and a model of semantic growth. Cognitive Science, 29(1), 41-78. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15516709cog2901_3 doi: 10.1207/s15516709cog2901_3 URL pmid: 21702767
[177]	* Tainturier, M. J., Tamminen, J., & Thierry, G. (2005). Age of acquisition modulates the amplitude of the P300 component in spoken word recognition. Neuroscience Letters, 379(1), 17-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2004.12.038
[178]	* Turner, J. E., Valentine, T., & Ellis, A. W. (1998). Contrasting effects of age of acquisition and word frequency on auditory and visual lexical decision. Memory and Cognition, 26(6), 1282-1291. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03201200
[179]	* Valente, A., Burki, A., & Laganaro, M. (2014). ERP correlates of word production predictors in picture naming: A trial by trial multiple regression analysis from stimulus onset to response. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 8, 390. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2014.00390 doi: 10.3389/fnins.2014.00390 URL pmid: 25538546
[180]	* Vitkovitch, M., & Tyrrell, L. (1995). Sources of disagreement in object naming. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 48(4), 822-848. https://doi.org/10.1080/14640749508401419
[1]	Wang, J., Jiang, X., & Chen, B. (2023). Second language age of acquisition effects in a word naming task: A regression analysis of ERP data. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 66, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2023.101125
[182]	* Wang, Z., Zhang, L., & Xuan, B. (2024). Age-related Chinese word recognition across different AoA and parts of speech. Current Psychology, 43(22), 19939-19952. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-05794-z
[183]	Weekes, B. (2011). Age of acquisition effects on Chinese character recognition: Evidence from EEG. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 23, 67-68. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.09.173
[184]	Weekes, B. S., Chan, A., Kwok, J. S. W., Hia Tan, L., & Jin, Z. (2004). AoA effects on Chinese language processing: An fMRI study. Brain and Language, 91(1), 33-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2004.06.020
[185]	* Weekes, B. S., Chan, A., & Tan, L. H. (2008). Effects of age of acquisition on brain activation during Chinese character recognition. Neuropsychologia, 46(7), 2086-2090. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.01.020 doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.01.020 URL pmid: 18325545
[186]	* Weekes, B. S., Shu, H., Hao, M., Liu, Y., & Tan, L. H. (2007). Predictors of timed picture naming in Chinese. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 335-342. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03193165 URL pmid: 17695362
[187]	* Wilson, M. A., Cuetos, F., Davies, R., & Burani, C. (2013). Revisiting age-of-acquisition effects in Spanish visual word recognition: The role of item imageability. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 39(6), 1842-1859. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033090
[188]	* Wilson, M. A., Ellis, A. W., & Burani, C. (2012). Age-of- acquisition affects word naming in Italian only when stress is irregular. Acta Psychologica, 139(3), 417-424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2011.12.012
[189]	* Wolna, A., Luniewska, M., Haman, E., & Wodniecka, Z. (2023). Polish norms for a set of colored drawings of 168 objects and 146 actions with predictors of naming performance. Behavior Research Methods, 55(5), 2706-2732. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-022-01923-3
[190]	* Xu, X., Li, J., & Guo, S. (2021). Age of acquisition ratings for 19, 716 simplified Chinese words. Behavior Research Methods, 53(2), 558-573. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-020-01455-8
[191]	* Yamazaki, M., Ellis, A. W., Morrison, C. M., & Ralph, M. A. L. (1997). Two age of acquisition effects in the reading of Japanese Kanji. British Journal of Psychology, 88(3), 407-421.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1997.tb02648.x
[192]	* Young, A. W., Bion, P. J., Ellis, A. W. (1982). Age of reading acquisition does not affect visual hemifield asymmetries for naming imageable nouns. Cortex, 18(3), 477-482. pmid: 7151456
[193]	* Yum, Y. N., & Law, S. P. (2019). Interactions of age of acquisition and lexical frequency effects with phonological regularity: An ERP study. Psychophysiology, 56(10), e13433. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.13433
[194]	Zevin, J. D., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2002). Age of acquisition effects in word reading and other tasks. Journal of Memory and Language, 47(1), 1-29. https://doi.org/10.1006/jmla.2001.2834
[195]	Zevin, J. D., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2004). Age-of-acquisition effects in reading aloud: Tests of cumulative frequency and frequency trajectory. Memory & Cognition, 32(1), 31-38. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03195818
[196]	* Zhang, M., Liu, Z., Botezatu, M. R., Dang, Q., Yuan, Q., Han, J., … Guo, T. (2023). A large-scale database of Chinese characters and words collected from elementary school textbooks. Behavior Research Methods, 56(5), 4732-4757. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-023-02214-1
[197]	* Zhang, Q., Zhou, Y., & Lou, H. (2022). The dissociation between age of acquisition and word frequency effects in Chinese spoken picture naming. Psychological Research- Psychologische Forschung, 86(6), 1918-1929. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-021-01616-0

调节变量	k	Intercept/ Hedge’s g (95% CI)	β (95% CI)	F值	p	研究内方差	研究间方差
目标认知过程				0.08	0.781	0.05	0.05
感知	105	0.46(0.38, 0.53)^***
产生	166	0.47(0.41, 0.54)^***	0.01(−0.08, 0.10)
文字系统				2.80	0.096	0.05	0.05
表音文字	220	0.50(0.45, 0.56)^***
表意文字	47	0.47(0.41, 0.54)^***	−0.11(−0.24, 0.02)
任务类型				9.32	< 0.001	0.03	0.06
词汇朗读	74	0.34(0.25, 0.43)^***
语义范畴判断	21	0.34(0.17, 0.51)^***	−0.03(−0.19, 0.14)
图画命名	79	0.55(0.47, 0.63)^***	0.22(0.10, 0.33)^***
词汇判断	54	0.59(0.49, 0.69)^***	0.25(0.13, 0.37)^***
语义相关度				14.62	< 0.001	0.04	0.05
低	70	0.34(0.25, 0.43)^***
高	151	0.53(0.47, 0.60)^***	0.20(0.10, 0.30)^**
语音相关度				1.27	0.261	0.05	0.04
低	72	0.52(0.44, 0.61)^***
高	149	0.47(0.41, 0.54)^***	−0.06(−0.16, 0.04)
词频				6.93	0.001	0.04	0.04
未控制	103	0.37(0.29, 0.44)^***
控制	123	0.53(0.45, 0.61)^***	0.17(0.07, 0.28)^**
独立	45	0.58(0.42, 0.75)^***	0.22(0.07, 0.37)^**

调节变量	k	Intercept/ Hedge’s g (95% CI)	β (95% CI)	F值	p	研究内方差	研究间方差
目标认知过程				0.08	0.781	0.05	0.05
感知	105	0.46(0.38, 0.53)^***
产生	166	0.47(0.41, 0.54)^***	0.01(−0.08, 0.10)
文字系统				2.80	0.096	0.05	0.05
表音文字	220	0.50(0.45, 0.56)^***
表意文字	47	0.47(0.41, 0.54)^***	−0.11(−0.24, 0.02)
任务类型				9.32	< 0.001	0.03	0.06
词汇朗读	74	0.34(0.25, 0.43)^***
语义范畴判断	21	0.34(0.17, 0.51)^***	−0.03(−0.19, 0.14)
图画命名	79	0.55(0.47, 0.63)^***	0.22(0.10, 0.33)^***
词汇判断	54	0.59(0.49, 0.69)^***	0.25(0.13, 0.37)^***
语义相关度				14.62	< 0.001	0.04	0.05
低	70	0.34(0.25, 0.43)^***
高	151	0.53(0.47, 0.60)^***	0.20(0.10, 0.30)^**
语音相关度				1.27	0.261	0.05	0.04
低	72	0.52(0.44, 0.61)^***
高	149	0.47(0.41, 0.54)^***	−0.06(−0.16, 0.04)
词频				6.93	0.001	0.04	0.04
未控制	103	0.37(0.29, 0.44)^***
控制	123	0.53(0.45, 0.61)^***	0.17(0.07, 0.28)^**
独立	45	0.58(0.42, 0.75)^***	0.22(0.07, 0.37)^**

作者及年份	样本量	文字系统	目标认知过程	任务类型	任务的语音相关度	任务的语义相关度	材料的词频控制度	ERP波幅成分/ 显著时窗	Hedge’s g	质量评估
Perret et al. (2014)	21	A	S	PN	H	H	C	382~414 ms	0.284	8
	20	A	S	PN	H	H	C	356~426 ms	0.240
Yum & Law (2019)	22	L	S	WN	H	L	U	280~450 ms	0.236	9
Laganaro & Perret (2011)	20	A	S	PN	H	H	C	120~140 ms	0.500	8
	20	A	S	PN	H	H	C	220~240 ms	2.995
	20	A	S	PN	H	H	C	320~350 ms	0.056
Adorni et al. (2013)	29	A	P	LDT	L	H	C	190~220 ms	0.410	8
Bakhtiar et al. (2016)	23	A	P	LDT	L	H	C	N170 (130~180 ms)	0.342	8
	23	A	P	LDT	L	H	C	N400 (300~450 ms)	0.477
	23	A	P	LDT	L	H	C	LPC (450~700 ms)	0.403
白学军等(2010)	16	L	P	LDT	L	H	C	N540 (300~750 ms)	2.158	7
	16	L	P	LDT	L	H	C	LPC (800~1000 ms)	0.601
Laganaro (2014)	18	A	S	PN	H	H	C	~400 ms-RT	2.467	8
Räling et al. (2015)	23	A	P	SC	L	H	U	N400	0.436	8
Cuetos et al. (2009)	20	A	P	SC	L	H	I	N400	0.485	8
Tainturier et al. (2005)	10	A	P	LDT^a			C	P300	0.689	8
娄昊等(2019)	21	A	S	PN	H	H	C	250~300 ms	4.903	8

作者及年份	样本量	文字系统	目标认知过程	任务类型	任务的语音相关度	任务的语义相关度	材料的词频控制度	ERP波幅成分/ 显著时窗	Hedge’s g	质量评估
Perret et al. (2014)	21	A	S	PN	H	H	C	382~414 ms	0.284	8
	20	A	S	PN	H	H	C	356~426 ms	0.240
Yum & Law (2019)	22	L	S	WN	H	L	U	280~450 ms	0.236	9
Laganaro & Perret (2011)	20	A	S	PN	H	H	C	120~140 ms	0.500	8
	20	A	S	PN	H	H	C	220~240 ms	2.995
	20	A	S	PN	H	H	C	320~350 ms	0.056
Adorni et al. (2013)	29	A	P	LDT	L	H	C	190~220 ms	0.410	8
Bakhtiar et al. (2016)	23	A	P	LDT	L	H	C	N170 (130~180 ms)	0.342	8
	23	A	P	LDT	L	H	C	N400 (300~450 ms)	0.477
	23	A	P	LDT	L	H	C	LPC (450~700 ms)	0.403
白学军等(2010)	16	L	P	LDT	L	H	C	N540 (300~750 ms)	2.158	7
	16	L	P	LDT	L	H	C	LPC (800~1000 ms)	0.601
Laganaro (2014)	18	A	S	PN	H	H	C	~400 ms-RT	2.467	8
Räling et al. (2015)	23	A	P	SC	L	H	U	N400	0.436	8
Cuetos et al. (2009)	20	A	P	SC	L	H	I	N400	0.485	8
Tainturier et al. (2005)	10	A	P	LDT^a			C	P300	0.689	8
娄昊等(2019)	21	A	S	PN	H	H	C	250~300 ms	4.903	8