Abstract: Spatial navigation refers to an individual's ability to update his or her position and orientation in space, learn the layout of new locations, and plan and follow routes to reach a destination. This ability is one of the fundamental abilities essential for the survival of both humans and animals. Gender is a significant factor contributing to individual differences in spatial navigation ability. Although numerous studies have explored gender differences in spatial navigation, findings regarding the existence and extent of these differences remain inconsistent. In these studies, gender often interacts with various factors, such as study design, collectively influencing spatial navigation ability. Therefore, it is essential to systematically investigate whether significant differences exist between men and women in spatial navigation ability and to analyze how moderating factors shape the relationship between gender and spatial navigation performance.
The present study integrated 173 original papers involving 372 independent effect sizes and 26,604 subjects between 2007 and 2023 through a three-level meta-analysis to clarify gender differences in spatial navigation ability and their potential moderating variables. The results indicate that males outperform females in spatial navigation ability under most conditions and that this gender difference is significantly moderated by age, mode of representation, time constraints, task environment, test scenario, and assistive equipment. Specifically, age was a significant moderating variable: males significantly outperformed females in spatial navigation between the ages of 4 and 65 years, whereas there were no significant differences in infancy (0~4 years) and late adulthood (65 years and older). Representational modality in task design also played a role, with smaller gender differences in egocentric representational tasks and larger differences in allocentric representational tasks. Gender differences were more significant in time-constrained tasks and less so when there were no time constraints. Task environment and test conditions also significantly affected results, with smaller gender differences in indoor environments only, real-scene tests, or conditions using paper-and-pencil instruments and no assistive devices, and more significant differences in dual indoor-outdoor test conditions or conditions using assistive devices. In addition, the study found that geographic region did not influence gender differences in spatial navigation ability, as participants from various continents consistently exhibited significant gender differences. On the one hand, this may be due to the uneven focus on different regions in previous research, resulting in an imbalanced distribution of participants. On the other hand, economic conditions and living environments may serve as more proximal factors influencing gender differences, potentially moderating these differences by providing varying resources and challenges. Furthermore, gender differences in spatial navigation ability remained consistent across different task types and measurement metrics, indicating the reliability of these assessments. However, in real-life situations, spatial environmental cues are considerably more complex and multifaceted than what simplified tasks in laboratory settings can fully capture. Therefore, future research should continue to explore evaluation methods that are more closely aligned with real-world conditions.
This study examined gender differences in spatial navigation ability and its moderators through a three-level meta-analysis. The findings not only confirmed the phenomenon of male superiority in spatial navigation ability but also identified several key variables that moderate these gender differences. Future research should involve more diverse and representative population samples and employ task designs and measurement methods that closely reflect real-world environments to further explore the relationship between gender and spatial navigation ability. Moreover, in practical terms, educators should prioritize the development of students' spatial navigation skills, particularly through targeted teaching and hands-on activities aimed at enhancing women's confidence and ability in handling navigation tasks. These efforts will not only contribute to narrowing the gender gap but also improve students' ability to tackle spatial challenges in real-world contexts, ultimately promoting educational equity and social progress.

Key words: spatial navigation, gender differences, there-level meta-analysis, moderating effect