ISSN 0439-755X
CN 11-1911/B
主办:中国心理学会
   中国科学院心理研究所
出版:科学出版社

心理学报, 2019, 51(3): 269-279 doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2019.00269

研究报告

情绪对连续事件定向遗忘的影响

任小云1, 李玉婷2, 毛伟宾,1, 耿秋晨1

1山东师范大学心理学院, 济南 250358

2山东中医药大学中医学院, 济南 250355

The effect of emotion on directed forgetting for continuous events

REN Xiaoyun1, LI Yuting2, MAO Weibin,1, GENG Qiuchen1

1 School of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250358, China

2 School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan 250355, China

通讯作者: 毛伟宾, E-mail:wb_mao@163.com

收稿日期: 2018-04-12   网络出版日期: 2019-03-25

基金资助: * 国家自然科学基金.  31571113
山东省自然科学基金资助.  ZR2014CM022

Received: 2018-04-12   Online: 2019-03-25

摘要

本研究采用项目法定向遗忘范式以中性和负性连续事件的视频为实验材料, 通过2个实验考察了情绪对连续事件定向遗忘的影响, 并进一步探讨了情绪对细节记忆和要义记忆的定向遗忘的影响。结果发现, 情绪可以消除细节记忆的定向遗忘效应, 而仅有要义记忆的定向遗忘效应则主要受到事件连续性而非情绪的影响。

关键词: 情绪 ; 连续事件 ; 定向遗忘 ; 要义记忆 ; 细节记忆

Abstract

Forgetting is an adaptive process that can limit the interferences from irrelevant distractors and update valuable information. With regard to negative events, intentional forgetting can effectively help us to recover from trauma. The research on the intentional forgetting of emotional information usually adopts the directed forgetting paradigm. The better memory performance of R items relative to F items is referred to as the typically directed forgetting effect. Although emotional information is thought to be easier to remember than neutral information because of the attentional capture and elaborative process, whether emotional information is more resistant to forgetting is obscured. Most studies on emotional directed forgetting used various discrete items, such as words and pictures, and few addressed continuous events that are actually common in our episodic memory. Directed forgetting is not an all-or-nothing phenomenon because specific and general information appears to be forgotten at different rates. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the influence of emotions on the directed forgetting effect of continuous events. This study also explores the differences in forgetting rates between general/gist memory and specific memory.
In the present study, we adopted the event directed paradigm that embeds memory instructions into continuous videos. In experiment 1, 36 participants were equally divided into two groups: one group watched a neutral video, and the other group watched a negative one. Each video contained nine R segments and nine F segments that were surrounded by green and purple borders. The colored borders acted as memory instructions. The participants were asked to remember the video segments when the border was green and to forget the video segments when the border was purple. The test phase involved free recall and recognition. The participants were requested to recall all information about the video regardless of the classification of the memory instruction (R or F segments). Then, the participants were asked to identify the old pictures among the distractors. The old pictures were taken from the studied videos, and the distractors were slightly similar to the old pictures. The participants’ responses were classified as general/gist memory and specific memory on the basis of previous studies. In experiment 2, we disrupted the play order of segments to further explore the influence of continuity on the directed forgetting effect.
The results of experiment 1 showed that the directed forgetting effect was lower in the negative video than in the neutral video. In addition, the participants demonstrated good memory for the general/gist information of the negative video in free recall. In the recognition phase, no directed forgetting effect was observed for specific memory in the negative video. The result indicated that emotions impaired or eliminated directed forgetting for continuous events. However, the performance of the gist-only memory for the R and F segments was not significant in the neutral and negative videos. Therefore, we speculated that the sequential play of segments might have led to the possibility of participants correctly guessing the general gist of the content. Therefore, we disrupted the order of segments in experiment 2, and the results showed a typically directed forgetting effect for gist-only memory.
In conclusion, directed forgetting could appear in continuous events. However, emotions impair the directed forgetting effect for a specific memory. For gist-only memory, the directed forgetting effect is affected by the continuity of events.

Keywords: emotion ; continuous event ; directed forgetting ; general/gist memory ; specific memory

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本文引用格式

任小云, 李玉婷, 毛伟宾, 耿秋晨. 情绪对连续事件定向遗忘的影响. 心理学报[J], 2019, 51(3): 269-279 doi:10.3724/SP.J.1041.2019.00269

REN Xiaoyun, LI Yuting, MAO Weibin, GENG Qiuchen. The effect of emotion on directed forgetting for continuous events. Acta Psychologica Sinica[J], 2019, 51(3): 269-279 doi:10.3724/SP.J.1041.2019.00269

1 引言

有意遗忘(intentional forgetting)是指个体主动地、有意识地遗忘所记忆的内容, 强调遗忘的有意性和指向性。与记住信息一样, 遗忘信息也是高效记忆重要的组成部分。及时更新过时的、干扰性的信息可以帮助我们更有效地记住新信息, 尤其是对于负性信息, 有意遗忘可以帮助我们更快地从情绪事件中得以恢复, 保护我们的身心健康。

目前, 有意遗忘的研究大多采用定向遗忘实验范式。具体来说, 在被试学习完单个项目(项目法)或者一组项目(列表法)之后, 呈现要求记住(to-be- remembered, TBR)或者要求忘记(to-be-forgotten, TBF)的指令, 告知被试需按照指令记住或者忘记之前所呈现的学习项目; 当所有项目或者列表呈现完毕后, 要求被试忽略学习阶段的指令, 尽力回忆或者再认所有呈现过的学习项目。如果被试对于TBR的记忆成绩显著高于TBF, 那么就说明出现了定向遗忘效应(Bjork, 1970, 1972, 1989; Basden, Basden, & Gargano, 1993; Basden & Basden, 1996; Woodward & Bjork, 1971)。以往研究采用中性的词语或者图片为实验材料均发现了稳定的定向遗忘效应(Bjork & Woodward, 1973; Sahakyan, Delaney, Foster, & Abushanab, 2013; Bancroft, Hockley, & Farquhar, 2013; Hupbach, 2017)。

然而, 目前对于负性信息能否表现出定向遗忘效应这一问题尚存争议。有的研究者认为负性信息同中性信息一样, 均可以出现定向遗忘效应(Tolin, Hamlin, & Foa, 2002; Wessel & Merckelbach, 2006; Quinlan & Taylor, 2014; 白学军, 王媛媛, 杨海波, 2012)。然而, 也有研究者发现负性情绪会削弱甚至消除定向遗忘效应(Payne & Corrigan, 2007; Hauswald, Schulz, Iordanov, & Kissler, 2011; Nowicka, Marchewk, Jednoróg, Jednoróg, & Brechmann, 2011; 贾宏燕, 梁拴荣, 2010; 杨文静, 杨金华, 肖宵, 张庆林, 2012; 葛操, 田峥, 张振宁, 孙彬, 2015)。研究者认为这类不一致的结果可能与不同的实验材料、实验流程以及被试的个体差异有关(杨文静, 张庆林, 伍泽莲, 贾磊, 2010)。可以说迄今为止, 对负性信息的定向遗忘研究大多采用词语或图片等静态的、内容上互相独立的实验材料, 而在日常生活中, 我们接触到的更多的是具有连续性的动作、场景、事件或经验等相对复杂的信息, 但是目前对复杂负性信息的定向遗忘研究较为罕见。Barnier和Conway等人(2007)对自传体记忆的定向遗忘效应进行了系列研究, 结果发现由双向关联词生成的中性和负性自传体记忆均能产生显著的定向遗忘效应, 并且自传体记忆的定向遗忘效应不受情绪的影响。一般说来, 自传体记忆要比词语或者图片更为复杂, 且自我相关性和情绪感受性更高, 但是由于被试需要主动地提取过去经历来生成自传体记忆, 因此就必然导致所生成的自传体记忆在熟悉性、深刻性以及情绪体验强度等方面存在很大的个体差异。此外, 该研究还发现当自传体记忆较为连续时会削弱定向遗忘效应(比如要求被试产生的自传体记忆来自同一时期)。显然, 由双向关联词所生成的情绪性自传体记忆虽具有一定的复杂性和关联性, 但生成的每段记忆在内容上并不一定具有连续性。而日常生活中, 情绪性事件的发生往往是连续的而非独立的, 所以有必要进一步探讨情绪对连续事件定向遗忘的影响。

值得注意的是, 人们对连续事件中不同类型的信息, 比如要义信息和细节信息的记忆程度是不同的, 因此只对复杂事件做记住或者忘记的简单判断并不能反映记忆的真实面貌(Fawcett, Taylor, & Nadel, 2013)。而且, 研究表明情绪对不同记忆类型的影响也并不一致, Adolphs, Denburg和Tranel (2001)发现情绪可以提高被试对项目一般信息或者要义信息的记忆, 但是并不会提高对项目具体的细节信息的记忆(Adolphs, Tranel, & Buchanan, 2005)。随后, Kensinger, Garoff-Eaton和Schacter (2007)采用中性和负性复合图片发现, 情绪可以提高被试对负性项目的要义记忆和细节记忆, 但是情绪会削弱对与负性项目一同出现的边缘背景的细节记忆, 而边缘背景的要义记忆则没有受到情绪的影响。这些研究均表明情绪对不同记忆类型的影响并不是一致的, 而是有选择性的。同样, 遗忘也不是一个全或无的过程, 也是具有选择性的, 不同的记忆类型可能会出现不同程度的遗忘。因此, 我们在考察情绪对连续事件定向遗忘效应的影响时, 有必要进一步区分情绪对连续事件中不同记忆类型定向遗忘效应的影响。

综上所述, 本研究选用复杂的连续视频作为实验材料, 通过2个实验力图解决3个方面的问题。首先, 连续视频的最大特点是内容的高度关联性和连续性, 更加贴近真实生活场景。这有利于进一步拓展有关负性信息定向遗忘效应的研究, 以便更好地理解情绪对定向遗忘的影响; 其次, 研究对记忆类型进行了严格区分, 分别探讨连续事件中细节记忆和要义记忆的定向遗忘效应, 力图厘清情绪性事件中究竟哪些记忆类型更容易记住或者遗忘; 最后, 本研究进一步对事件连续性可能带来的推想和臆测进行了控制, 以区分情绪对连续事件定向遗忘的影响是否是臆测或者推想的结果。我们预期, 由于情绪在编码阶段所带来的注意捕获和提取阶段的难以抑制(Ohman, Flykt, & Esteves, 2001), 因此相较于中性视频, 负性视频更难出现定向遗忘效应或者出现的定向遗忘效应较小; 其次, 由于情绪可以增强对细节信息的记忆(Kensinger, Garoff-Eaton, & Schacter, 2006, 2007; Kensinger, 2009), 因此细节记忆作为一种较为精细的加工, 相较于要义记忆来说, 更不容易产生定向遗忘(Joslyn & Oakes, 2005); 最后, 相比于细节信息, 事件的连续性可能会对导致被试对事件要义信息的推理或猜测, 从而削弱要义记忆的定向遗忘效应。

2 实验1:情绪对连续事件的不同记忆类型定向遗忘的影响

实验1采用项目法定向遗忘范式, 以中性和负性视频作为实验材料考察情绪对连续事件不同记忆类型定向遗忘效应的影响。

2.1 实验方法

2.1.1 被试

被试为36名本科生(其中男生13人, 女生23人), 平均年龄为20.5岁, 视力或矫正视力正常, 均为自愿参加且之前未参与过类似实验。将被试随机分为中性组和负性组, 每组18人。我们采用GPower 3.1软件, 参考前人研究(Facwett et al., 2013; Facwett, Taylor, & Lynn, 2014)采用中性连续视频所得出的指令类型主效应的效应量大小(f = 0.44, f = 0.26, 实验1), 以Cohens (1988)对效应量大中小的界定, 设置中等效应量f = 0.25, 当样本量达到24时, 指令类型主效应的统计检验力在α = 0.05时可以达到0.95; 当样本量达到36时, 情绪类型主效应的统计检验力在α = 0.05时可以达到0.95。因此, 实验1计划样本量为36, 实际样本量为36, 无删减被试。

2.1.2 实验设计

实验采用2(情绪类型:中性、负性) × 2(指令类型:记住、忘记) × 2(记忆类型:细节、要义)混合实验设计, 其中情绪类型为被试间变量, 指令类型和记忆类型为被试内变量。因变量为要义信息的回忆正确率和再认正确率, 细节信息的回忆正确率和再认正确率。

2.1.3 实验材料

学习材料:首先, 从网络上挑选6个视频, 其中三个中性视频和三个负性视频, 中性视频的主题为“新闻发布会”, 负性视频的主题为容易诱发恐惧和紧张情绪的“战争”。按照Fawcett等人(2013)的方法对视频进行剪辑处理, 分辨率均为1280×720, 且去掉字幕和音频, 处理后的视频内容均具有完整性和连续性, 每个视频的播放时间为10分30秒。其次, 由24名不参与实验的研究生对6个视频的效价进行7点量表的评分(1 = “紧张、恐惧”, 7 = “欢快、舒畅”), 唤醒度进行7点量表评分(1 = “几乎没有”, 7 = “非常强烈”), 熟悉度进行7点量表评分(1 = “非常不熟悉”, 7 = “非常熟悉”)。最后, 根据评定结果, 选取了其中的2个视频作为实验材料, 一个为中性视频(效价 = 4.37 ± 0.77, 唤醒度 = 3.32 ± 0.73), 另一个为负性视频(效价 = 2.56 ± 0.60, 唤醒度 = 4.70 ± 0.73), 中性视频与负性视频的效价差异显著(t(23) = 9.14, p < 0.001), 唤醒度差异显著(t(23) = 5.85, p < 0.001), 而熟悉度差异不显著(p > 0.05)。将每个视频等分为18个片段, 9个作为要求记住的片段, 9个作为要求忘记的片段, 每个片段时长为35秒。

测验材料:根据Kensinger等人(2006, 2007)的做法, 将再认材料分为三种类型:相同图片、相似图片和新图片。其中相同图片是取自学习阶段所观看视频的截图(学习图片), 相似图片是共享与学习图片一致的要义信息而细节信息不同的图片, 新图片则是与学习图片从要义到细节都完全不同的图片(见图1)。再认阶段图片共240张, 中性组和负性组的再认阶段分别包括48张相同图片(其中取自记住片段和忘记片段的图片分别为24张)、48张与相同图片匹配的相似图片、24张与学习图片内容完全不同的新图片。其中将相同图片与相似图片进行被试内平衡, 确保相同图片以及与其所匹配的相似图片只会有其中的一张呈现给被试(即在测验阶段, 被试不会同时看到一张学习视频中爆炸场景的图片和一张类似于学习视频中爆炸场景的图片)。

图1

图1   再认图片示例


2.1.4 实验程序

实验分为学习、干扰和测验3个阶段。

学习阶段:被试随机分为两组, 一组被试观看中性视频, 另一组被试观看负性视频。中性和负性视频总呈现时间为10分30秒, 每个视频均由18个片段组成, 每个片段时长35秒, 分别为9个记住片段和9个忘记片段。参照Fawcett等人(2013)的方法, 将代表记忆指令的彩色边框嵌入每段视频的外围, 并告知被试绿色边框代表记住指令, 紫色边框代表忘记指令。边框颜色在片段之间随机变化, 即每隔35秒随机变化一次, 相同颜色的边框不会连续呈现超过3次, 确保被试无法预测边框颜色的变化规律。对记住片段和忘记片段进行了被试间平衡, 即相同的材料在不同的被试中既作为记住片段也作为忘记片段呈现过。实验流程如图2所示。

图2

图2   学习阶段流程图


干扰阶段:学习阶段结束后进行10分钟的干扰任务, 要求被试在A4纸上进行趣味数学计算题。

测验阶段:分为自由回忆和再认两个阶段。自由回忆阶段要求被试不论学习阶段的视频边框颜色是绿色还是紫色, 都尽可能详尽地回忆刚才所观看视频的所有内容, 并写在纸上。再认测验阶段共呈现再认图片72张, 其中24张相同图片(来自记住和忘记片段的图片各12张), 24张相似图片(与记住和忘记片段图片相匹配的相似图片各12张), 24张新图片。要求被试根据之前所观看的视频内容对每张图片进行判断, 如果所呈现的图片是与学习视频完全一致的图片, 则判断为“相同”; 如果所呈现的图片与学习视频内容的主题要义相同, 但是具体的细节信息不同, 则判断为“相似”; 如果所呈现的 图片与学习视频内容毫无关联、完全不同, 则判断为“新”。

2.2 数据收集和统计

自由回忆:我们采用Burke, Heuer和Reisberg (1992)对要义和细节记忆的定义来对被试的回忆内容进行分类。要义记忆指事件的主线情节以及事件的概念性信息, 具体来说就是对“视频展示了什么和发生了什么”这一问题的粗略回答(例如, 视频中展示的是小孩在乞讨, 而不是在玩耍); 细节记忆则指与事件的中心人物有关的具体信息(例如, 乞讨儿童的腿上盖着一条蓝色的毯子)以及与中心人物无关的背景信息(例如, 乞讨儿童的身后是一面画满涂鸦的墙)。依据崔丽弦和黄敏儿(2007)对自传体记忆数据的转换方法, 首先, 由4名助手将所有被试的回忆内容划分为有意义的分句进行整理, 其中2名助手整理要义信息, 另外2名助手整理细节信息; 其次, 助手分别将所有被试能正确回忆出的要义信息和细节信息(减掉重叠部分)综合整理到一起作为每个被试应该回忆出的要义信息和细节信息的总量, 即回忆总数; 最后, 根据之前所整理的回忆总数计算每个被试对每种记忆类型的回忆正确率。我们对助手间的分类统计结果进行了Pearson相关分析, 2名助手对要义信息评定的相关性显著, r = 0.88, p < 0.001; 2名助手对细节信息评定的相关性显著, r = 0.84, p < 0.001。

再认:我们参照 Kensinger等人(2007)的统计方法, 根据被试对“相同图片”所做出的按键反应, 对一般要义再认、细节再认、仅有要义再认正确率分别进行了计算:(1)细节再认(specific recognition):对“相同图片”作出的“相同”反应, 这代表了被试对学习视频有较为精准具体的细节记忆; (2)一般要义再认(general recognition):对相同图片做出“相同”和“相似”反应的总和, 这代表了被试对学习视频有大致要义的记忆, 这包含了细节再认和要义再认两种情况; (3)仅有要义再认(gist-only recognition):仅有要义再认是通过被试对“相同图片”所做出的“相似”反应计算得出的:“相似”反应/(1 - “相同”反应), 类似于记住/知道范式中“独立-知道” (independent- know)分数的计算方法(Yonelinas & Jacoby, 1995), 这只反映了被试对学习视频的要义记忆。由于原始数据存在击中为1或虚报为0的情况(即被试全部成功再认了所有相同图片)。因此, 我们根据Snodgrass和Corwin (1988)的做法对原始数据进行了校正(原始数据+0.5/N+1, N为不同类型图片的数量)。正如Kensinger等人(2007)所指出的, 一般要义再认不仅含有被试对视频片段的要义记忆, 还包含了对视频片段的细节记忆, 因此为了更加准确的考察再认中要义记忆和细节记忆的定向遗忘效应, 在结果中我们主要对细节再认和仅有要义再认进行比较, 对一般要义再认则不予分析。

2.3 结果

2.3.1 自由回忆

对回忆正确率(表1)进行2 (情绪类型:中性、负性) × 2(指令类型:记住、忘记) × 2(记忆类型:要义、细节)的重复测量方差分析, 结果发现:情绪类型主效应显著(F(1, 34) = 4.26, p = 0.047, ηp2 = 0.11, 95%CI = [0, 0.31]), 负性视频的回忆正确率显著高于中性视频(MD = 0.04); 指令类型主效应显著(F(1, 34) = 23.95, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.41, 95% CI = [0.16, 0.59]), 记住片段的回忆正确率显著高于忘记片段(MD = 0.06)。记忆类型主效应显著(F(1, 34) = 131.48, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.80, 95%CI = [0.65, 0.86]), 要义回忆正确率显著高于细节回忆正确率(MD = 0.18); 指令类型和情绪类型的交互作用边缘显著(F(1, 34) = 3.72, p = 0.062, ηp2 = 0.10, 95% CI = [0, 0.30]), 进一步简单效应分析发现被试对中性视频和负性视频的记住片段的回忆正确率没有显著差异(t(34) = 0.53, p = 0.598, d = 0.17, 95%CI = [-0.48, 0.83]), 但是被试对负性视频忘记片段的回忆正确率显著高于对中性视频的忘记片段(t(34) = 2.32, p = 0.026, d = 0.78, 95% CI = [-0.34, 1.74]) (见图3); 记忆类型和情绪类型交互作用显著(F(1, 34) = 9.68, p = 0.004, ηp2 = 0.22, 95% CI = [0.03, 0.43]), 进一步简单效应分析发现负性视频的要义回忆正确率显著高于中性视频的要义回忆正确率(t(34) = 3.29, p = 0.002, d = 1.10, 95% CI = [0.39, 1.79]), 但中性视频和负性视频的细节回忆正确率没有显著差异(t(34) = 0.66, p = 0.513, d = 0.23, 95% CI = [-0.44, 0.87])。其他变量间的交互作用不显著。

表1   不同情绪类型下记住和忘记片段的要义和细节回忆正确率(M ± SD)

记忆类型中性视频负性视频
记住片段忘记片段记住片段忘记片段
要义回忆0.25 ± 0.100.17 ± 0.100.31 ± 0.120.29 ± 0.11
细节回忆0.12 ± 0.110.03 ± 0.040.09 ± 0.090.04 ± 0.04

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图3

图3   不同情绪类型下记住片段和忘记片段的回忆正确率


2.3.2 再认

参照Kensinger等人(2007)的做法, 我们对再认正确率(表2)进行2(情绪类型:中性、负性) × 2(指令类型:记住、忘记) × 2(记忆类型:细节再认、仅有要义再认)的重复测量方差分析, 结果表明:指令类型主效应边缘显著(F(1, 34) = 3.90, p = 0.056, ηp2 = 0.10, 95% CI = [0, 0.31]), 记住片段的再认正确率高于忘记片段(MD = 0.05); 记忆类型主效应显著(F(1, 34) = 56.11, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.62, 95% CI = [0.39, 0.74]), 细节再认正确率显著高于仅有要义再认正确率(MD = 0.218); 指令类型、情绪类型与记忆类型的三项交互作用边缘显著(F(1, 34) = 3.90, p = 0.056, ηp2 = 0.10, 95% CI = [0, 0.31]), 对细节再认正确率进行2(情绪类型:中性、负性)×2(指令类型:记住、忘记)的重复测量方差分析, 结果表明指令类型与情绪类型的交互作用显著(F(1, 34) = 4.80, p = 0.035, ηp2 = 0.12, 95% CI = [0, 0.33]), 进一步的简单效应分析表明对于中性视频, 记住片段的细节正确再认率显著高于忘记片段(t(17) = 2.23, p = 0.039, d = 0.62, 95% CI = [0.03, 1.01]), 而对于负性视频, 记住片段和忘记片段的细节再认正确率没有显著差异(t(17) = 0.46, p = 0.653, d = 0.11, 95% CI = [-0.36, 0.57]) (图4)。中性视频和负性视频记住片段的细节再认正确率没有显著差异(t(34) = 0.22, p = 0.872, d = 0.08, 95% CI = [-0.58, 0.73]), 但负性视频忘记片段的细节再认正确率显著高于中性视频中的忘记片段(t(34) = 2.18, p = 0.036, d = 0.73, 95% CI = [0.05, 1.40]); 而对仅有要义再认正确率进行2(情绪类型:中性, 负性)×2(指令类型:记住, 忘记)的重复测量方差分析, 结果发现各变量的主效应及其之间的交互作用均不显著。

表2   不同情绪类型下记住和忘记片段的细节和仅有要义再认正确率(M ± SD)

记忆类型中性视频负性视频
记住片段忘记片段记住片段忘记片段
细节再认0.82 ± 0.130.70 ± 0.240.83 ± 0.100.84 ± 0.13
仅有要义再认0.53 ± 0.220.51 ± 0.270.55 ± 0.220.48 ± 0.25

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图4

图4   不同情绪类型下记住片段和忘记片段的细节再认正确率


2.4 讨论

实验1的结果发现被试对记住片段的记忆成绩显著高于忘记片段, 说明连续事件可以表现出定向遗忘效应, 这与前人的研究结果一致(Fawcett et al., 2013)。但情绪会削弱甚至消除连续事件的定向遗忘效应, 表现为在自由回忆中负性视频的定向遗忘效应弱于中性视频。同时, 实验1结果还发现在自由回忆中情绪主要增强了被试对视频内容的要义回忆, 这与Adolphs等人(2001, 2005)的研究结果相一致; 在再认中, 中性视频的细节再认出现了显著的定向遗忘效应, 而负性视频的细节再认没有出现定向遗忘效应。仅有要义再认则不受情绪和指令的影响。

对于实验1发现的仅有要义再认没有表现出定向遗忘效应这一结果, 我们推测这可能与被试对连续视频内容的猜测有关, 被试比较容易根据前面的片段内容而推测后面片段内容的要义信息, 因此导致记住片段和忘记片段中仅有要义再认的记忆成绩差异不显著, 即仅有要义再认没有表现出定向遗忘效应。过去的研究也发现, 项目之间的关联性会影响定向遗忘效应的出现。Conway, Harries, Noyes和Racsma’ny等人(2000)采用列表法定向遗忘范式以语义相关联的中性词语作为实验材料(父亲-母亲)发现记住列表与忘记列表之间的语义关联性可以消除定向遗忘效应, 该研究结果也得到了Sahakyan和Goodmon (2007)的支持; 贾喆、毛伟宾和东利云(2014)以负性的连续视频作为实验材料也发现内容的关联性可以消除定向遗忘效应, 他们认为要求记住信息和要求忘记信息之间的关联性可以诱发双向联想激活, 加强信息的存储痕迹, 因此无法成功遗忘。

3 实验2:连续性对事件的不同记忆类型定向遗忘的影响

实验2中我们采用打乱视频片段的播放顺序的方法, 即控制了被试对视频内容的猜测和推断, 以进一步考察不同记忆类型的定向遗忘效应。

3.1 实验方法

3.1.1 被试

随机选取36名本科生(其中男生16人, 女生20人), 平均年龄为19.5岁, 视力或矫正视力正常, 均为自愿参加且之前都未参与过类似的实验, 将其随机分为中性组和负性组, 每组18人。

3.1.2 实验设计

同实验1。

3.1.3 实验材料

实验2所使用的视频材料与实验1相同。

3.1.4 实验程序

实验2的程序与实验1基本相同, 分为学习、干扰和测验3个阶段。不同之处在于在学习阶段实验1的18个视频片段是按照事件发展的顺序进行播放, 而在实验2中, 我们打乱了视频片段的播放顺序, 即将实验1中18个视频片段随机呈现。这样就可以在保持视频片段的内在连续性的同时阻止了被试对后续片段的推测和臆想。

3.2 数据收集和统计

与实验1相同。

3.3 结果

3.3.1 自由回忆

对回忆正确率(表3)进行2(情绪类型:中性、负性) × 2(指令类型:记住、忘记) × 2(记忆类型:要义、细节)进行重复测量方差分析, 结果发现:指令类型主效应显著(F(1, 34) = 54.75, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.62, 95%CI = [0.38, 0.74]), 记住片段的回忆正确率显著高于忘记片段(MD = 0.10); 记忆类型主效应显著(F(1, 34) = 124.08, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.79, 95% CI = [0.63, 0.85]), 要义回忆显著高于细节回忆(MD = 0.15); 记忆类型与指令类型交互作用显著(F(1, 34) = 11.96, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.26, 95%CI = [0, 0.31]), 进一步的简单效应分析表明, 记住片段的要义回忆正确率显著高于忘记片段的要义回忆正确率(t(35) = 7.13, p < 0.001, d = 1.72, 95%CI = [0.75, 1.61]), 记住片段的细节回忆正确率也显著高于忘记片段的细节回忆正确率(t(35) = 4.39, p < 0.001, d = 0.87, 95% CI = [0.36, 1.10]), 其他变量主效应及变量间的交互作用均不显著。

表3   不同情绪条件下记住和忘记片段的要义和细节回忆正确率(M ± SD)

记忆类型中性视频负性视频
记住片段忘记片段记住片段忘记片段
要义回忆0.29 ± 0.100.14 ± 0.090.28 ± 0.070.16 ± 0.08
细节回忆0.10 ± 0.110.03 ± 0.030.10 ± 0.070.05 ± 0.06

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3.3.2 再认

对再认正确率(表4)进行2(情绪类型:中性、负性) × 2(指令类型:记住、忘记) × 2(记忆类型:细节再认, 仅有要义再认)的重复测量方差分析, 结果表明:指令类型主效应显著(F(1, 34) = 17.61, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.34, 95%CI = [0.10, 0.53]), 记住片段的再认正确率显著高于忘记片段(MD = 0.10); 记忆类型主效应显著(F(1, 34) = 29.15, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.46, 95% CI = [0.20, 0.62]), 细节再认正确率显著高于仅有要义再认正确率(MD = 0.20)。其他变量及变量间的交互作用均不显著。

表4   不同情绪条件下记住和忘记片段的细节和仅有要义再认正确率(M ± SD)

记忆类型中性视频负性视频
记住片段忘记片段记住片段忘记片段
细节再认0.73 ± 0.150.62 ± 0.260.77 ± 0.120.70 ± 0.19
仅有要义再认0.56 ± 0.200.46 ± 0.240.56 ± 0.250.43 ± 0.25

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为了进一步分析被试猜测和推想对细节再认和仅有要义再认的影响, 我们将实验1和实验2中细节和仅有要义再认的结果进行了进一步的比较分析。首先, 对细节再认正确率进行2(指令类型:记住、忘记) × 2(情绪类型:中性、负性) × 2(实验顺序:实验1、实验2)的重复测量方差分析, 结果表明:指令类型主效应显著(F(1, 68) = 12.65, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.16, 95%CI = [0.03, 0.31]), 记住片段的细节再认正确率显著高于忘记片段(MD = 0.07); 实验顺序主效应显著(F(1, 68) = 7.04, p = 0.01, ηp2 = 0.09, 95% CI = [0, 0.24]), 实验1细节再认正确率显著高于实验2 (MD = 0.10); 情绪类型主效应边缘显著(F(1, 68) = 3.75, p = 0.057, ηp2 = 0.05, 95% CI = [0, 0.18]), 负性视频的细节再认正确率显著高于中性视频(MD = 0.07); 指令类型和情绪类型的交互作用显著(F(1, 68) = 4.73, p = 0.033, ηp2 = 0.07, 95% CI = [0, 0.20]), 进一步简单效应分析发现中性视频记住片段的细节正确再认率显著高于忘记片段(t(35) = 3.36, p = 0.002, d = 0.56, 95%CI = [0.20, 0.91]), 而对于负性视频, 记住片段和忘记片段的细节再认正确率没有显著差异(t(35) = 1.32, p = 0.195, d = 0.19, 95%CI = [-0.11, 0.55])。其他变量的主效应及变量间的交互作用均不显著。

其次, 对仅有要义再认正确率进行2(指令类型:记住、忘记) × 2(情绪类型:中性、负性) × 2(实验顺序:实验1、实验2)的重复测量方差分析, 结果表明:指令类型主效应显著(F(1, 68) = 9.47, p = 0.003, ηp2 = 0.12, 95%CI = [0.02, 0.27]), 记住片段的仅有要义再认正确率显著高于忘记片段(MD = 0.08), 指令类型和实验顺序边缘显著(F(1, 68) = 2.06, p = 0.15, ηp2 = 0.03, 95%CI = [0, 0.14]), 为了避免第一类型的错误, 基于Bonferroni test, 将t检验中的α值设置为0.0125 (Kern, Libkuman, Otani, & Holmes, 2005; Robinson, Plaut, & Behrmann, 2017), 结果发现实验1中记住片段和忘记片段的仅有要义再认没有显著差异(t(35) = 1.19, p = 0.24, d = 0.17, 95% CI = [-0.13, 0.53]), 实验2中记住片段的仅有要义再认显著高于忘记片段(t(35) = 3.17, p = 0.003, d = 0.52, 95% CI = [0.18, 0.87]) (图5)。其他变量的主效应及变量间的交互作用均不显著。

图5

图5   实验1和2中记住和忘记片段的细节和仅有要义再认正确率


3.4 讨论

实验2在打乱了视频片段的播放顺序, 即在严格控制了被试对片段内容的臆测和推想之后, 发现指令类型主效应显著, 即仅有要义再认表现出了定向遗忘效应。这充分说明在实验1中, 被试对视频内容的推测可能消除了仅有要义再认的定向遗忘效应, 这也与前人采用相关性材料做的研究结果相一致(Conway et al., 2000; Sahakyan & Goodmon, 2007)。

此外, 与实验1的结果不同的是, 实验2中情绪类型的主效应及情绪与其他变量之间的交互作用均不显著, 这可能是因为打乱视频片段影响到了负性视频的情绪性, 因此我们请24位不参与实验的大学生对实验2中的视频材料进行评定, 结果发现中性视频和负性视频的效价差异边缘显著(t(23) = 2.0, p = 0.057), 而唤醒度差异不显著(t(23) = 1.07, p = 0.29)。这说明我们打乱视频片段之间的播放顺序后, 确实影响到了被试对视频的情绪感受, 因此没有表现出情绪效应。这也从侧面表明, 情绪唤醒在定向遗忘中起着重要的作用, 这需要在未来研究中进一步探讨。

4 总讨论

4.1 情绪对连续事件定向遗忘效应的影响

实验1和实验2采用定向遗忘范式, 以内容具有完整性和连续性的中性视频和负性视频为实验材料考察了连续事件中的定向遗忘效应。结果发现被试对连续事件中要求记住片段的记忆成绩显著好于要求忘记片段, 这与前人研究结果一致(Fawcett et al., 2013), 说明定向遗忘效应并不仅局限于离散的、内容互相独立的单词或者图片等实验材料, 连续事件也可以表现出定向遗忘效应。但连续事件的定向遗忘效应会受到情绪的影响, 表现为实验1中负性视频在自由回忆中的定向遗忘效应弱于中性视频, 这是因为情绪主要影响了被试对忘记片段的记忆成绩, 表现为被试对中性和负性视频记住片段的记忆成绩没有显著差异, 但对负性视频忘记片段的记忆成绩显著高于中性视频忘记片段。这可能是因为忘记情绪性记忆要比忘记中性记忆需要付出更大的意志努力, Nowicka等人(2011)也发现成功忘记负性图片要比成功忘记中性图片诱发更强烈的和更广泛的神经活动。我们推测在编码阶段, 尽管要求被试忘记负性视频的某些片段, 但由于片段的情绪性会诱发强烈的注意捕获, 从而促进了被试对负性视频的忘记片段的加工, 因此相比于中性视频的忘记片段, 被试对负性视频忘记片段的记忆更加深刻(Ohman, Flykt, & Esteves, 2001; Bailey & Chapman, 2012)。同时在提取阶段, 情绪性信息也更容易被提取或者更难被抑制, 这也获得了提取抑制理论的支持, 即负性视频的情绪性削弱了被试在提取时对忘记片段的抑制能力, 从而导致被试对负性视频记住片段和忘记片段的记忆成绩差异较小或者没有显著差异(Geiselman & Bagheri, 1985; Zack, Radvansk, & Hasher, 1996; Hauswald et al., 2011)。与实验1不同的是, 实验2并没有发现情绪的主效应或情绪与其他变量的交互作用, 原因是打乱视频片段的播放顺序后, 实验材料的情绪性遭到了破坏, 因此情绪的作用被削弱了, 这说明对于复杂事件来说, 连续性可能是保持情绪稳定性并使情绪发挥作用的一个重要条件。

4.2 情绪对不同记忆类型定向遗忘效应的影响

实验1自由回忆的结果表明被试对负性视频的要义再认明显好于中性视频, 而对中性视频和负性视频的细节再认却没有显著差异, 说明情绪主要增强了被试在自由回忆中对视频的要义记忆, 这与Adolphs等人(2001, 2005)的研究结果相一致。而在再认中情绪会消除细节再认的定向遗忘效应, 表现为被试对中性视频记住片段的细节再认显著好于忘记片段, 但是对负性视频记住片段和忘记片段的细节再认没有显著差异, 即负性视频没有表现出定向遗忘效应。我们认为出现这种结果的原因是情绪增强了被试对忘记片段的细节记忆, 表现为被试对负性视频忘记片段的细节再认好于中性视频, 而对中性和负性视频记住片段的细节再认没有显著差异。这与前人研究结果一致, 即情绪会提高被试对项目的细节记忆(Kensinger et al., 2006, 2007; Kensinger, 2009)。这可能是因为在编码阶段, 负性视频的情绪性所带来的注意捕获提高了被试对忘记片段的细节记忆, 而细节记忆又是一种较为精细加工的结果, 因此不容易受到忘记指令的影响(Joslyn & Oakes, 2005)。而在实验2中, 细节记忆和仅有要义记忆均不会受到情绪的影响, 这可能与实验材料的情绪性遭到破坏有关。但是与实验1不同的是, 实验2自由回忆的结果发现了记忆类型和指令类型的交互作用, 即要义记忆的定向遗忘效应要大于细节记忆的定向遗忘效应, 这说明相比于细节记忆, 要义记忆的定向遗忘效应更容易受到事件连续性的影响。

值得注意的是, 自由回忆和再认所发现的结果并不完全一致, 自由回忆的结果表明情绪主要影响被试对视频内容的要义记忆, 而再认的结果则表明情绪主要影响被试对视频内容的细节记忆, 这可能与不同测验方式的性质差异有关, 自由回忆要求被试对学习项目进行主动地检索和提取, 而再认任务更多的是要求被试将测验项目与之前学习阶段所储存在记忆中的项目进行对比判断(Lehman & Malmberg, 2009)。但不论是自由回忆还是再认, 情绪均会阻碍连续事件的定向遗忘。

4.3 事件连续性对仅有要义记忆定向遗忘效应的影响

实验1再认结果发现仅有要义再认不会受到指令类型的影响, 即仅有要义再认没有出现定向遗忘效应, 这与前人研究结果并不一致(Joslyn & Oakes, 2005)。我们猜测这可能与实验1中片段是按照原有视频的顺序而进行播放有关, 片段与片段之间的内容关联性较高, 这就有可能致使被试会根据某个或者某几个视频片段的内容对其他视频片段的内容进行推测, 而这种推测更多的是针对片段内容的要义信息, 因此导致记住片段和忘记片段的仅有要义再认没有显著差异, 这与前人研究一致(Conway et al., 2000; Sahakyan & Goodmon, 2007; Golding, Long, & Macleod, 1994)。Conway等人(2000)认为当要求记住的信息和要求忘记的信息之间的关联性较高时, 被试就越倾向于以将它们看做一个整体, 因此导致记住信息和忘记信息在编码、存储和提取的时候难以分割, 进而难以出现定向遗忘效应。所以在实验2中我们打乱视频的播放顺序, 控制了被试对视频内容的推理和猜测, 结果发现细节记忆和仅有要义再认均表现出了显著的定向遗忘效应。这说明实验1中视频片段的连续播放确实可能会导致被试对片段要义信息的推理和猜测, 从而消除了仅有要义记忆的定向遗忘效应。同时在实验1和实验2的综合分析里, 我们只在仅有要义再认中发现了实验顺序和指令类型的交互作用, 而细节再认中实验顺序和指令类型不存在交互作用, 即在片段连续播放的时候, 仅有要义记忆不存在定向遗忘效应; 当打乱片段播放的连续性后, 仅有要义记忆表现出显著的定向遗忘效应, 而细节记忆在连续播放和不连续播放的条件下都会表现出定向遗忘效应。这说明事件的连续性会影响定向遗忘效应, 主要表现在仅有要义记忆上, 这可能是因为要义信息可以根据片段与片段之间的顺序播放进行推测, 而细节信息则较难依靠推测。

另外, 实验2中由于我们打乱了视频的播放顺序, 这也导致视频的情绪性受到了削弱, 因此没有发现情绪对定向遗忘的影响。当然, 这一情绪效应的削弱还值得未来进一步的研究。

5 结论

(1)情绪可以削弱甚至消除连续事件的定向遗忘效应。

(2)情绪对不同记忆类型的影响不同, 情绪可以消除细节记忆的定向遗忘效应, 但仅有要义记忆则相对不受影响。

(3)相比于细节记忆, 事件连续性主要削弱仅有要义记忆的定向遗忘效应。

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Event-method directed forgetting: Forgetting a video segment is more effortful than remembering it

Acta Psychologica, 144( 2), 332-343.

DOI:10.1016/j.actpsy.2013.07.005      URL     PMID:23933003      [本文引用: 1]

61An intentional forgetting paradigm was applied to continuous events.61Intentional forgetting was evident only for specific (as opposed to general) details.61Intentional forgetting also slowed secondary task responses at study.61Intentional forgetting is an active process that affects memory in a graded manner.

Fawcett J. M., Taylor T. L., &Nadel L . ( 2013).

Intentional forgetting diminishes memory for continuous events

Memory, 21( 6), 675-694.

DOI:10.1080/09658211.2012.748078      URL     PMID:23301998      [本文引用: 6]

In a novel event method directed forgetting task, instructions to Remember (R) or Forget (F) were integrated throughout the presentation of four videos depicting common events (e.g., baking cookies). Participants responded more accurately to cued recall questions (E1) and true/false statements (E2-4) regarding R segments than F segments. This was true even when forced to attend to F segments by virtue of having to perform concurrent discrimination (E2) or conceptual segmentation (E3) tasks. The final experiment (E5) demonstrated a larger R >F difference for specific true/false statements (the woman added three cups of flour) than for general true/false statements (the woman added flour) suggesting that participants likely encoded and retained at least a general representation of the events they had intended to forget, even though this representation was not as specific as the representation of events they had intended to remember.

Ge C., Tian Z., Zhang Z. N., &Sun B . ( 2015).

The research of negative and neutral words on directed forgetting effects

Studies of Psychology and Behavior, 13( 4), 461-465.

[本文引用: 1]

[ 葛操, 田峥, 张振宁, 孙彬 . ( 2015).

负性词语与中性词语的定向遗忘效应

心理与行为研究, 13( 4), 461-465.]

URL     [本文引用: 1]

Previous researches produced discrepant behavioral results on directed forgetting of negative and neutral words. The present research employed the item-method of directed forgetting in order to examine whether emotionally negative words can lead participants to produce directed forgetting effects. The results demonstrated directed forgetting effects for both neutral and negative words, with a stronger effects for neutral words. The results indicate that not only are emotionally negative words can be forgot in directed forgetting, but that these effects are in fact impaired for negative words.

Geiselman ,R.E., &Bagheri B. ( 1985).

Repetition effects in directed forgetting: Evidence for retrieval inhibition

Memory & Cognition, 13( 1), 57-62.

DOI:10.3758/BF03198444      URL     PMID:4010515      [本文引用: 1]

Four experiments were conducted in support of a role for memory retrieval inhibition in directed forgetting. In each experiment, subjects were presented a list of words, some of which they were instructed to remember and some of which they were instructed to forget. After a recall test for all the words, the list was repeated. This time, however, all the words were presented with instructions that they be remembered. The improvement in recall from Trial 1 to Trial 2 was greater for the “forget” (F) words than for the “remember” (R) words. This difference was not due to a memorization-difficulty, item-selection effect (Experiment 2), a differential priority for rehearsal or output position given to the F items on Trial 2 (Experiment 3), or the greater number of F items left to be learned after Trial 1 (Experiment 4). Thus, the differential improvement from List 1 to List 2 for the F items was interpreted as a release of retrieval inhibition owing to the change in cue from forget to remember.

Golding J. M., Long D. L., &Macleod C. M . ( 1994).

You can°t always forget what you want: Directed forgetting of related words

Journal of Memory & Language, 33( 4), 493-510.

DOI:10.1006/jmla.1994.1023      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Two experiments investigated the influence of directed forgetting on semantically related words versus semantically unrelated words. Subjects first studied a list in which a REMEMBER or FORGET instruction followed each word (e.g., crab ... REMEMBER ... leg ... FORGET); they were tested on all of the words, regardless of study instruction. Recall and recognition-scored both for individual words and for word pairs-revealed a consistent pattern: Retention of FORGET words was markedly better when they followed related REMEMBER words, as opposed to when they followed related FORGET words or unrelated words. Thus, a pre-existing semantic relation was able to override an instruction to forget. This helps to explain why studies using unrelated word lists generally show substantial cued forgetting, whereas those using related material do not. The findings also place a clear constraint on the domain and explanation of directed forgetting.

Hauswald A., Schulz H., Iordanov T., &Kissler J . ( 2011).

ERP dynamics underlying successful directed forgetting of neutral but not negative pictures

Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 6( 4), 450-459.

DOI:10.1093/scan/nsq061      URL     PMID:20601423      [本文引用: 2]

Subjective experience suggests that negatively arousing are harder to control than neutral ones. Here, we investigate this issue in an item-cued directed forgetting experiment. Electroencephalogram event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded as participants viewed un-arousing neutral and highly arousing negative photographs, each followed by a cue to remember or forget it. Directed forgetting, that is reduced recognition of 'to-be-forgotten' items, occurred for neutral but not negative pictures. ERPs revealed three underlying effects: first, during picture viewing a late parietal positive potential () was more pronounced for negative than for neutral pictures. Second, 'remember' cues were associated with larger than 'forget' cues. Third, an enhanced frontal positivity appeared for 'forget' cues. This frontal positivity was generated in right dorso-lateral prefrontal regions following neutral pictures and in medial frontal cortex following negative pictures. magnitude when viewing negative pictures was correlated with reduced directed forgetting, whereas both the enhanced frontal positivity for forget cues and the larger parietal positivity for remember cues predicted more directed forgetting. This study indicates that both processes of selective rehearsal (parietal positivities) and frontally controlled inhibition contribute to successful directed forgetting. However, due to their deeper incidental processing, highly arousing negative pictures are exempt from directed forgetting.

Hupbach A . ( 2017).

Long-term effects of directed forgetting

Memory, 26( 3), 321-329.

DOI:10.1080/09658211.2017.1358748      URL     PMID:28766463      [本文引用: 1]

Abstract The intention to forget reduces the accessibility of information in memory, which is commonly explained with temporary retrieval difficulties. Long-term effects have rarely been studied, and results are inconsistent. The present study re-assessed the long-term effects of directed forgetting (DF). Participants encoded a first list of items (L1), and were then instructed to forget or to remember this list. Immediately afterwards, all participants were presented with a second list to remember. In Experiment 1, memory for L1 and L2 was assessed after a 24-h delay. The forget cue reduced the number of items that were recalled from L1. Experiment 2 implemented a 12-h delay between encoding and test that was either filled with day-time wakefulness or night-time sleep. Replicating the findings of Exp. 1, recall of L1 was reduced in the forget in comparison to the remember condition. Sleep in comparison to wakefulness significantly strengthened L1 memory in the remember group only. Taken together, the present study shows that the intention to forget can have long-lasting consequences. This suggests that different mechanisms underlie the short- and long-term effects of DF, with long-term effects potentially reflecting the preferential consolidation of information that has been identified as important during encoding.

Jia ,H.Y., &Liang S.R . ( 2010).

Emotion affects word- directed forgetting

Psychological Science, 33( 2), 416-418.

[本文引用: 1]

[ 贾宏燕, 梁拴荣 . ( 2010).

情绪对单字法定向遗忘的影响

心理科学, 33( 2), 416-418.]

URL     [本文引用: 1]

情绪是否影响定向遗忘一直是记忆心理学家关注的热点。本文通过引入情绪(情绪性刺激、中性刺激)变量,操纵指示符(记住、遗忘)变量,探讨情绪对单字法定向遗忘的影响。结果表明:(1)中性刺激材料的定向遗忘效应显著,而情绪性刺激材料的定向遗忘效应不显著;(2)情绪破坏了单字法定向遗忘。

Jia Z., Mao W. B., &Dong L. Y . ( 2014).

Effect of events and self-relevance on directed forgetting of negative emotional memory

Psychological Science, 37( 4), 840-844.

[本文引用: 1]

[ 贾喆, 毛伟宾, 东利云 . ( 2014).

内容与自我关联性对负性情绪记忆定向遗忘的影响

心理科学, 37( 4), 840-844.]

URL     [本文引用: 1]

本研究使用负性情绪视频片段作为实验材料,采用词表法定向遗忘范式,用2个实验分别考察了内容与自我关联性对负性情绪要义和细节记忆的定向遗忘及其权衡的影响。研究结果表明:(1)材料内容上的关联性没有导致定向遗忘的出现。在内容关联条件下,遗忘提示只增加了要义记忆没有增加细节记忆;(2)自我关联性导致了对负性情绪记忆的定向遗忘,表现为遗忘组的回忆成绩低于记住组;(3)关联性对细节和要义记忆有不同的影响,自我关联性使得被试的细节回忆率更高,但要义回忆率却更低,表现出明显的要义-细节权衡。

Joslyn ,S.L., &Oakes M.A . ( 2005).

Directed forgetting of autobiographical events

Memory & Cognition, 33( 4), 577-587.

[本文引用: 3]

Kensinger ,E.A . ( 2009).

Remembering the details: Effects of emotion

Emotion Review, 1( 2), 99-113.

DOI:10.1177/1754073908100432      URL     [本文引用: 2]

Kensinger E. A., Garoff-Eaton R. J., &Schacter D. L . ( 2006).

Memory for specific visual details can be enhanced by negative arousing content

Journal of Memory & Language, 54( 1), 99-112.

DOI:10.1016/j.jml.2005.05.005      URL     [本文引用: 3]

Individuals often claim that they vividly remember information with negative emotional content. At least two types of information could lead to this sense of enhanced vividness: Information about the emotional item itself (e.g., the exact visual details of a snake) and information about the context in which the emotional item was encountered (e.g., the fact that the snake was sitting on a branch in a forest). The present study focused on the former, investigating how exposure duration at study and emotional content of an object affected the likelihood of remembering an item&#x2019;s specific visual details. Participants studied neutral objects (e.g., a barometer) and negative arousing objects (e.g., a grenade) and were later shown either the identical object or a different photo of the same type of object (e.g., another barometer). Across two experiments, emotional content enhanced the likelihood that specific visual details were remembered: Individuals were more likely to correctly indicate that an item was identical to the object studied earlier if it was an emotional object than if it was a neutral object. This memory benefit for the emotional items was most robust when items were shown for longer exposure durations (500 or 1000 ms) rather than only briefly (for 250 ms). Thus, with sufficient processing time, negative arousing content appears to enhance the likelihood that visual details are remembered about an object.

Kensinger E. A., Garoff-Eaton R. J., &Schacter D. L . ( 2007).

Effects of emotion on memory specificity: Memory trade- offs elicited by negative visually arousing stimuli

Journal of Memory and Language, 56( 4), 575-591.

DOI:10.1016/j.jml.2006.05.004      URL     [本文引用: 7]

Two different types of trade-offs have been discussed with regard to memory for emotional information: A trade-off in the ability to remember the gist versus the visual detail of emotional information, and a trade-off in the ability to remember the central emotional elements of an event versus the nonemotional (peripheral) elements of that same event. The present study examined whether these two trade-offs interact with one another when participants study scenes that elicit an emotional response due to the inclusion of a negative visually arousing object. Participants studied scenes composed of a negative or a neutral object placed on a background. Their memory was then tested for the “gist” and visual detail of the objects and the backgrounds. The results revealed that there is a pervasive memory trade-off for central emotional versus peripheral nonemotional elements of scenes. With some encoding tasks, a trade-off for gist versus visual detail also resulted, but this trade-off occurred only when memory for the nonemotional background of a scene was assessed. There was no gist/detail trade-off for the emotional objects in a scene.

Kern R. P., Libkuman T. M., Otani H., &Holmes K . ( 2005).

Emotional stimuli, divided attention, and memory

. Emotion, 5( 4), 408-417.

DOI:10.1037/1528-3542.5.4.408      URL     PMID:16366745      [本文引用: 1]

The emotion-literature has shown that negative emotional arousal enhances . S. A. Christianson (1992) proposed that preattentive processing could account for this emotion-relationship. Two experiments were conducted to test Christianson's theory. In Experiment 1, participants were exposed to neutral and negative arousing slides. In Experiment 2, participants were exposed to neutral, negative arousing, and positive arousing slides. In both experiments, the aforementioned variable was factorially combined with a divided-attention or non-divided-attention condition. The authors predicted that, in contrast to the nondivided condition, dividing attention would adversely impact neutral and positive stimuli more than negative stimuli. The hypothesis was supported; participants recalled more high negative-arousal slides than positive or neutral slides when their attention was divided rather than nondivided.

Lehman M., &Malmberg K.J . ( 2009).

A global theory of remembering and forgetting from multiple lists

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 35( 4), 970-988.

DOI:10.1037/a0015728      URL     PMID:19586264      [本文引用: 1]

Forgetting is frustrating, usually because it is unintended. Other times, one may purposely attempt to forget an event. A global theory of recognition and free recall that explains both types of forgetting and remembering from multiple list experiments is presented. The critical assumption of the model is that both intentional and unintentional forgetting are often due to contextual interference. Unintentional forgetting is the natural result of contextual changes between study and test. Intentional forgetting is accomplished by a rapid, metacognitively instigated change in mental context that renders to-be-forgotten information relatively inaccessible and renders to-be-remembered information more accessible (L. Sahakyan & C. M. Kelley, 2002). This occurs for both recognition and free recall. Implications for item-method directed forgetting, exclusion recognition, source , and encoding operations are discussed.

Nowicka A., Marchewka A., Jednoróg K., Tacikowski P., &Brechmann A . ( 2011).

Forgetting of emotional information is hard: An fMRI study of directed forgetting

Cerebral Cortex, 21( 3), 539-549.

DOI:10.1093/cercor/bhq117      URL     PMID:20584747      [本文引用: 2]

Abstract Strong evidence suggests that memory for emotional information is much better than for neutral one. Thus, one may expect that forgetting of emotional information is difficult and requires considerable effort. The aim of this item-method directed forgetting functional magnetic resonance imaging study was to investigate this hypothesis both at behavioral and neural levels. Directed forgetting effects were observed for both neutral and emotionally negative International Affective Picture System images. Moreover, recognition rate of negative to-be-forgotten images was higher than in case of neutral ones. In the study phase, intention to forget and successful forgetting of emotionally negative images were associated with widespread activations extending from the anterior to posterior regions mainly in the right hemisphere, whereas in the case of neutral images, they were associated with just one cluster of activation in the right lingual gyrus. Therefore, forgetting of emotional information seems to be a demanding process that strongly activates a distributed neural network in the right hemisphere. In the test phase, in turn, successfully forgotten images--either neutral or emotionally negative--were associated with virtually no activation, even at the lowered P value threshold. These results suggest that intentional inhibition during encoding may be an efficient strategy to cope with emotionally negative memories.

Ohman A., Flykt A., &Esteves F . ( 2001).

Emotion drives attention: Detecting the snake in the grass

Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130( 3), 466-478.

[本文引用: 2]

Payne B.K., &Corrigan E .( 2007).

Emotional constraints on intentional forgetting

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43( 5), 780-786.

DOI:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.07.005      URL     [本文引用: 1]

One way people control the contents of their minds is intentional forgetting oluntarily forgetting events after they have happened. The events people would most like to forget are unpleasant and emotional. This study used a directed forgetting procedure with emotional and neutral pictures to examine whether people can intentionally forget emotional events as easily as mundane ones. When the to-be-forgotten list was neutral, participants showed successful intentional forgetting. But when the to-be-forgotten list was emotional, directed forgetting failed. Results contribute to understanding the ways that emotion constrains mental control by capturing mental processes including memory retrieval. Emotion may short-circuit attempts to forget those parts of the past people would most like to forget.

Quinlan, C. K., & Taylor, T. L . ( 2014).

“I never forget a face, but in your case I’ll be glad to make an exception”: Intentional forgetting of emotional faces

Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68( 3), 212-221.

DOI:10.1037/cep0000024      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Robinson A. K., Plaut D. C., &Behrmann M . ( 2017).

Word and face processing engage overlapping distributed networks: Evidence from RSVP and EEG investigations

Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 146( 7), 943-961.

DOI:10.1037/xge0000302      URL     PMID:28368200      [本文引用: 1]

Abstract Words and faces have vastly different visual properties, but increasing evidence suggests that word and face processing engage overlapping distributed networks. For instance, fMRI studies have shown overlapping activity for face and word processing in the fusiform gyrus despite well-characterized lateralization of these objects to the left and right hemispheres, respectively. To investigate whether face and word perception influences perception of the other stimulus class and elucidate the mechanisms underlying such interactions, we presented images using rapid serial visual presentations. Across 3 experiments, participants discriminated 2 face, word, and glasses targets (T1 and T2) embedded in a stream of images. As expected, T2 discrimination was impaired when it followed T1 by 200 to 300 ms relative to longer intertarget lags, the so-called attentional blink. Interestingly, T2 discrimination accuracy was significantly reduced at short intertarget lags when a face was followed by a word (face-word) compared with glasses-word and word-word combinations, indicating that face processing interfered with word perception. The reverse effect was not observed; that is, word-face performance was no different than the other object combinations. EEG results indicated the left N170 to T1 was correlated with the word decrement for face-word trials, but not for other object combinations. Taken together, the results suggest face processing interferes with word processing, providing evidence for overlapping neural mechanisms of these 2 object types. Furthermore, asymmetrical face-word interference points to greater overlap of face and word representations in the left than the right hemisphere. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2017 APA, all rights reserved).

Sahakyan L., &Goodmon L.B . ( 2007).

The influence of directional associations on directed forgetting and interference

Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory & Cognition, 33( 6), 1035-1049.

[本文引用: 3]

Sahakyan L., Delaney P. F., Foster N. L., &Abushanab B . ( 2013).

Chapter four-list-method directed forgetting in cognitive and clinical research: A theoretical and methodological review

Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 59, 131-189.

DOI:10.1016/B978-0-12-407187-2.00004-6      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Snodgrass J.G., &Corwin J . ( 1988).

Perceptual identification thresholds for 150 fragmented pictures from the snodgrass and vanderwart picture set

Perceptual and Motor Skills, 67( 1), 3-36.

DOI:10.2466/pms.1988.67.1.3      URL     PMID:3211683      [本文引用: 1]

This paper reports perceptual identification thresholds for 150 pictures from the 1980 Snodgrass and Vanderwart picture set. These pictures were fragmented and presented on the Apple Macintosh microcomputer in a picture-fragment completion task in which identification thresholds were obtained at three phases of learning: Train (initial presentation), New (initial presentation after training on a different set), and Old (repeated presentation of the Train set). Pictures were divided into five sets of two subsets of 15 pictures each, which served alternately as the Train and New sets. A total of 100 subjects participated in the task, with 10 subjects assigned to each subset. Individual thresholds for each picture at each phase of learning are presented, along with the fragmented pictures identified by 35% of the subjects across the Train and New learning phases. This set of fragmented pictures is provided for use in experiments in which a single level of fragmented image is presented for identification after a priming phase. Correlations between the Snodgrass and Vanderwart norms and identification thresholds at the three phases of learning are also reported.

Tolin D. F., Hamlin C., &Foa E. B . ( 2002).

Directed forgetting in obsessivecompulsive disorder: Replication and extension

Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40( 7), 793-803.

DOI:10.1016/S0005-7967(01)00062-6      URL     PMID:12074373      [本文引用: 1]

Previous research indicates that patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) show impaired ability to forget negative material (Behav Res Ther 34 (1996) 633). The present study was intended to replicate and extend these findings by separating emotional valence from personal relevance, using idiographic stimulus selection to control for heterogeneity of OCD concerns, and the addition of an anxious control group. We used a directed forgetting paradigm, in which participants were instructed to either remember or forget a series of words. No differences in impairment were found among the groups during a free recall test, in which they were asked to recall both “remember” and “forget” words. However, during a recognition test, OCD patients showed greater impaired forgetting for OCD-relevant words than did nonanxious and anxious controls. Valence of words did not emerge as a contributing factor to impaired forgetting.

Wessel I., &Merckelbach H . ( 2006).

Forgetting “murder” is not harder than forgetting “circle”: List wise-directed forgetting of emotional words

Cognition and Emotion, 20 ( 1), 129-137.

DOI:10.1080/02699930500260195      URL     [本文引用: 1]

The list-method directed forgetting (DF) paradigm has attracted the attention of clinical psychologists because it is widely believed that a retrieval inhibition mechanism underlies its effects. Thus, the idea is that people are capable of intentionally forgetting negative emotional material. On the other hand, there are reasons to believe that negative stimuli are relatively resistant to forgetting. The present experiment compared listwise DF of emotional and neutral words in healthy college students. A modified procedure (i.e., a simulated computer crash) showed a reliable DF-effect in that list 1 recall was larger under remember than forget instructions whereas the reverse was true for list 2 recall. Emotionality did not modulate the magnitude of this effect. Thus, negative emotional material is not resistant to forgetting. Although overall, the present findings are in line with a retrieval inhibition interpretation (i.e., decreased access to list 1 material), attentional focusing during list 2 learning may provide a sufficient explanation.

Woodward A.E., &Bjork R.A . ( 1971).

Forgetting and remembering in free recall: Intentional and unintentional

Journal of Experimental Psychology, 89( 1), 109-116.

DOI:10.1037/h0031188      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Yang W. J., Yang J. H., Xiao X., &Zhang Q. L . ( 2012).

Directed forgetting of negative memories and its mechanisms

Psychological Science, 35( 1), 50-55.

[本文引用: 1]

[ 杨文静, 杨金华, 肖宵, 张庆林 . ( 2012).

负性情绪材料的定向遗忘及心理机制

心理科学, 35( 1), 50-55.]

URL     [本文引用: 1]

采用项目法定向遗忘的研究范式,在两个实验中分别使用文字和图片材料考察了负性情绪记忆定向遗忘的效果及其心理机制。实验中采用了中性和负性两种实验材料,设置了两种记忆指令延后呈现的时间(间隔2秒后提示和间隔5秒后提示)。研究表明负性情绪会干扰定向遗忘,相对于中性材料,被试更不容易忘记负性材料。记忆指令延后出现的时间长短只影响图片材料的定向遗忘,说明选择性编码是文字材料定向遗忘的心理机制,而抑制控制是图片材料定向遗忘的机制。

Yang W. J., Zhang Q. L., Wu Z. L., &Jia L . ( 2010).

Intentional forgetting of emotional memory

Advances in Psychological Science, 18( 6), 871-877.

[本文引用: 1]

[ 杨文静, 张庆林, 伍泽莲, 贾磊 . ( 2010).

情绪性记忆的主动遗忘

心理科学进展, 18( 6), 871-877.]

URL     [本文引用: 1]

Intentional forgetting of emotional memories refers to the phenomenon that people attempt to actively put the unwanted memories which are emotionally disturbing out of awareness. Directed forgetting and suppression forgetting, two types of intentional forgetting, have triggered a bunch of studies so far. The item method and the list method are used to explore the mechanisms of directed forgetting, while the TNT task and the white bear task are mainly used to investigate suppression forgetting. In this article, we reviewed laboratory studies in this area, posing some important questions for the future studies, such as the interaction of different paradigms and cognitive systems, individual differences, the separation of emotional responses from the emotional events, and so on.

Yonelinas A.P., &Jacoby L.L . ( 1995).

The relation between remembering and knowing as bases for recognition: Effects of size congruency

Journal of Memory & Language, 34( 5), 622-643.

DOI:10.1006/jmla.1995.1028      URL     [本文引用: 1]

In three recognition memory experiments, subjects studied a list of randomly generated geometric shapes, followed by a recognition test in which old items were either size congruent (same size at study and test) or size incongruent. In Experiment 1, the process dissociation procedure (Jacoby, 1991) showed that changing the size of the items led to a decrease in both recollection and familiarity. In Experiment 2, the remember/know procedure (Tulving, 1985) showed that recollection, as indexed by the proportion of "remember" responses, decreased with size incongruence, but familiarity, as indexed by the proportion of "know" responses, increased. The latter effect along with other problems with the remember/know procedure were found to arise because of the procedure underlying assumption that recollection and familiarity are mutually exclusive. When an independence assumption was combined with the remember/know data (IRK), results agreed with those of the process dissociation procedure. In Experiment 3, receiver operating characteristics (ROCs) were examined using the remember/know procedure and showed that familiarity was well described by a signal detection process that was independent of recollection.

Zacks R. T., Radvansky G., &Hasher L . ( 1996).

Studies of directed forgetting in older adults

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 22( 1), 143-156.

DOI:10.1037/0278-7393.22.1.143      URL     PMID:8648283      [本文引用: 1]

Abstract Younger and older adults were compared in 4 directed forgetting experiments. These varied in the use of categorized versus unrelated word lists and in the use of item by item versus blocked remember-forget cueing procedures. Consistent with L. Hasher and R. T. Zacks's (1988) hypothesis of impaired inhibitory mechanisms in older adults, a variety of findings indicated that this age group is less able than younger adults to suppress the processing and retrieval of items designated as to be forgotten (TBF). Specifically, in comparison with younger adults, older adults produced more TBF word intrusions on an immediate recall test (Experiments 1A and 1B), took longer to reject TBF items (relative to a neutral baseline) on an immediate recognition test (Experiment 3), and recalled (Experiments 1A, 1B, and 2) and recognized (Experiment 1B and 2) relatively more TBF items on delayed retention tests in which all studied items were designated as targets.

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