ISSN 0439-755X
CN 11-1911/B
主办:中国心理学会
   中国科学院心理研究所
出版:科学出版社

心理学报, 2019, 51(1): 71-84 doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2019.00071

研究报告

面孔吸引力和信息正确性对幼儿选择性信任的影响

唐卫海, 钟汝波, 许晓旭, 刘希平*

天津师范大学教育科学学院, 天津 300387

Effects of facial attractiveness and information accuracy on preschoolers’ selective trust

TANG Weihai, ZHONG Rubo, XU Xiaoxu, LIU Xiping*

School of Educational Science, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin 300387, China

通讯作者: 刘希平, E-mail: lxp3771@sina.com

收稿日期: 2017-05-2   网络出版日期: 2019-01-25

基金资助: * 天津市哲学社会科学规划课题资助.  TJJX15-017
天津师范大学培育国家社科重大招标项目专项基金资助.  2017

Received: 2017-05-2   Online: 2019-01-25

摘要

实验1采用3×2×2 的混合设计, 考察4~6岁幼儿获取全新信息时基于面孔吸引力的选择性信任及其特点。结果显示:(1) 4~6岁的男孩和女孩均表现出对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任。(2)在选择性信任程度方面:5岁比4岁高, 而4岁和6岁之间、5岁和6岁之间则相同; 女孩在询问任务中比男孩表现出更高的选择性信任, 在赞同任务中则相同。那么, 幼儿的这种选择性信任是否受到信息正确性的调节?为此, 实验2采用2×3的被试间设计, 探讨信息提供者提供信息的正确性对4~6岁幼儿基于面孔吸引力的选择性信任的影响。结果显示:在正确性为50% vs. 50%条件下, 幼儿未对信息提供者产生选择性信任; 在正确性为25% vs. 75%条件下, 幼儿对提供较大正确性信息的低面孔吸引力者产生了选择性信任。研究结果表明:(1)在信息缺乏时, 4~6岁幼儿普遍存在有偏见的选择性信任; 女孩比男孩更易受到社会偏见因素的影响。(2)在信息明确时, 4~6岁幼儿也能做出相对理性的选择性信任。

关键词: 幼儿 ; 信息正确性 ; 面孔吸引力 ; 选择性信任 ; 社会偏见

Abstract

The research area on children’s selective trust in testimony was initiated by Harris et al. (2014). Previous studies had found that knowledge, as a trustworthy source, is conditional. In addition, the certainty of new information that is decided by the knowledge cues can influence children’s selective trust. Bascandziev and Harris (2014) found that four- to five-year-old boys in an ask task did not show biased selective trust to an informant with a high facial attractiveness when they were learning new information. However, the difference in facial attractiveness was possibly not detected by the children and the children’s age was not controlled. Therefore, the aim of Experiment 1 was to find the characteristics of selective trust on the basis of facial attractiveness when children acquire new information. The goal of Experiment 2 was to examine whether information accuracy or facial attractiveness is the main factor influencing children’s selective trust.
Experiment 1 adopted a 3 (age group: four-, five-, six-year-old children) × 2 (gender: male, female) × 2 (task: ask, endorse) mixed design. A total of 63 four-year-old children (Mage = 54.72 months, SD = 2.06 months, 30 girls) and 66 five-year-old children (Mage = 66.00 months, SD = 1.47 months, 33 girls) were selected from two kindergartens in Tianjin. In addition, 66 six-year-old children (Mage = 78.12 months, SD = 1.80 months, 30 girls) were selected from an elementary school in the same city. Experiment 2 adopted a 2 (accuracy of information: 50% vs. 50%, 25% vs. 75%) × 3 (age group: four-, five-, six-year-old children) between-subject design. A total of 62 four-year-old children (Mage = 54.72 months, SD = 3.17 months, 28 girls) and 59 five-year-old children (Mage = 66.48 months, SD = 3.59 months, 27 girls) were selected from two kindergartens in Tianjin. Moreover, 56 six-year-old children (Mage = 78.12 months, SD = 1.80 months, 27 girls) were selected from an elementary school in the same city. All children in the two experiments participated in ask and endorse tasks using a laptop computer to selectively trust one of two informants with different levels of facial attractiveness.
The results of Experiment 1 revealed that four- to six-year-old girls and boys show selective trust to informants with high facial attractiveness in the ask and endorse tasks. Moreover, five-year-old children have stronger degree of selective trust to informants with high facial attractiveness than four-year-old children. No difference was found between five- and six-year-old children and between four- and five-year-old children. Girls were stronger than boys in the ask task, no difference between was found between them in the endorse task. The results of Experiment 2 revealed that four- to six-year-old children in equal- and unequal-accuracy conditions show selective trust to informants with high facial attractiveness when they completed ask task. Moreover, no difference was found among the three age groups on the degree of selective trust to informants with high facial attractiveness. However, when they completed the endorse task, children in the equal-accuracy condition did not show any preference to informants with high or low facial attractiveness. By contrast, children in the unequal-accuracy condition tended to selectively trust informants who had low facial attractiveness but mentioned more accurate names. However, no difference was found among the three age groups on the degree of selective trust to informants with low facial attractiveness.
On the basis of these results, this study proposes the following: (1) Girls and boys aged four-six years show selective trust on the basis of facial attractiveness if the information is deficient. Moreover, girls aged four to six years are more venerable to social bias factors than boys of the same age range. (2) Four- to six-year-old children can make rational judgments on the reliability of the information provided by informants if the information is sufficient.

Keywords: preschoolers ; accuracy of information ; facial attractiveness ; selective trust ; social prejudice

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本文引用格式

唐卫海, 钟汝波, 许晓旭, 刘希平. 面孔吸引力和信息正确性对幼儿选择性信任的影响 . 心理学报[J], 2019, 51(1): 71-84 doi:10.3724/SP.J.1041.2019.00071

TANG Weihai, ZHONG Rubo, XU Xiaoxu, LIU Xiping. Effects of facial attractiveness and information accuracy on preschoolers’ selective trust. Acta Psychologica Sinica[J], 2019, 51(1): 71-84 doi:10.3724/SP.J.1041.2019.00071

1 问题提出

哲学中的证言认识论(testimony epistemology)认为人类的知识和信念来自证言(testimony)。证言广义上指信息提供者向信息接受者做出的断言陈述(丛杭青, 徐献军, 2003)。因此, 可以把个体对知识的学习比作对他人证言的信任。Harris等人借用哲学上的这一术语, 开创了幼儿对证言的选择性信任(selective trust in testimony)这一研究领域(Clément, Koenig, & Harris, 2004)。选择性信任(selective trust)的概念在西方的一系列研究中并未给出明确的定义, 国内近几年来给出了不同的定义(张兰萍, 周晖, 2011; 王颖, 2012; 袁鸣, 邓铸, 季培, 2013; 车翰博, 2014)。整合这些定义的不同方面, 本研究将选择性信任定义为:幼儿在获取新信息时, 根据信息提供者的认识性或社会性线索, 选择向特定的信息提供者询问信息或接受该信息提供者所提供信息的过程。

选择性信任研究中的经典范式是“冲突信息提供者”范式。首先向儿童呈现新异的物品, 然后询问新异物品的名称是什么, 以确保儿童无法对这些问题进行自主判断。之后, 要求儿童依次完成询问(ask)和赞同(endorse)两个任务。在询问任务中, 先向儿童同时呈现两名存在特征差异的信息提供者, 然后问儿童想让哪位信息提供者将答案告诉自己。在赞同任务中, 两名信息提供者给出相互冲突的答案, 然后问儿童赞同哪位信息提供者的回答。在每个任务中, 儿童通过口头报告或手指指示来回答问题。研究者通过分析儿童询问和赞同信息提供者的试次比率来考察选择性信任的发展规律和影响因素。信息提供者的特征差异, 可以是其外在特征, 也可以是所提供信息本身的特征。

回顾以往的研究, 可将儿童选择性信任的影响因素分为两类。一类是认识性因素, 主要指信息提供者的知识能力、所提供信息的可靠性以及提供信息时的背景信息(丁雪辰, 2016)。例如, 信息提供者的知识状态(knowledge state) (Sabbagh & Baldwin, 2001; Kushnir, Vredenburgh, & Schneider, 2013)、信息提供者的知识专业性(expertise) (Sobel & Corriveau, 2010; Koenig & Jaswal, 2011)、信息提供者提供信息的正确性(accuracy) (Clément et al., 2004; Koenig & Harris, 2005; Birch, Vauthier, & Bloom, 2008; Koenig & Woodward, 2010)以及信息提供者对情境信息的通达性(access, 指获取信息的感官通道是否通畅) (Nurmsoo & Robinson 2009; Robinson, Butterfill, & Nurmsoo, 2011)。另一类是社会性因素, 主要指信息提供者的社会可信赖性、社会习俗、社会类别、社会情感以及社会知觉中的偏见因素。例如, 信息提供者的诚实、友善等可信赖性特质(Vanderbilt, Liu, & Heyman, 2011; Liu, Vanderbilt, & Heyman, 2013; Li, Heyman, Xu, & Lee, 2014; Doebel & Koenig, 2013; Mascaro & Sperber, 2009; 车翰博, 2014)、信息提供者的年龄(Jaswal & Neely, 2006)、信息提供者与儿童的情感联结程度(Corriveau et al., 2009)、信息提供者的口音(Kinzler, Corriveau, & Harris, 2011)、性别(Ma & Wooley, 2013; Taylor, 2013)、体型肥瘦和四肢健全度(Jaffer & Ma, 2015)、面孔吸引力(Bascandziev & Harris, 2014)。在学习这些知识信息时, 儿童的选择性信任可能会受到社会偏见的影响, 从而表现出非理性的选择性信任。

虽然自我知觉和可靠的他人均可作为稳定的信息源, 但是, 随着年龄和知识经验的增长, 相比从他人那里所获得的信息, 儿童更信赖通过自我知觉所获取的信息。例如:3岁幼儿在经过积极强化学习后往往根据自己的知觉经验寻找物体隐藏的位置(Ma & Ganea, 2010), 或根据自身知觉经验判断物体的颜色属性(Clément et al., 2004), 而不再依赖信息提供者的证言。与年龄较小儿童相比, 4岁儿童对信息提供者的证言表现出更多的质疑(Jaswal, 2004)。在辨识物体时, 5岁儿童比3~4岁儿童更加依赖自我的知觉信息, 较少依靠信息提供者提供的信息(Bernard, Harris, Terrier, & Clément, 2015)。等到7、8岁时, 儿童对熟悉的事物不再采信成人的标签, 而是按照自己的知识经验对事物进行分类(Chan & Tardif, 2013)。Sperber等人(2010)认为这是人类为了避免被他人的信息误导, 达成有效的信息交流, 从而逐步发展起来的一套认识警觉性(epistemic vigilance)的认知机制在起作用(Sperber et.al., 2010)。

那么, 当信息情境中给儿童提供了可参考的知识线索时, 儿童基于社会偏见的选择性信任是否会受到知识线索的调节?对此, 儿童认识性信任的有关研究提供了一些参考。根据选择性信任研究中涉及的新信息是否具有相应的知识线索, 可将新信息分为五类:完全不确定的新信息、较小确定性新信息、中等确定性新信息、较大确定性新信息以及完全确定性新信息。从逻辑上讲, 五个等级的新信息是存在的。但在实际操作中, 不同类型的新信息通常由一种陌生物品作为代表或由两种熟悉的物品各自保留某些特征所合成。在合成的过程中, “较小确定性新信息”是难以实现的。因为“少A+多B”与对应的“多A+少B”效果是一样的。例如, 25%A+ 75%B, 与75%A+25%B, 对被试而言, 其效果都是两个物品中的一个占据了75%的特征, 属于较大确定性信息新。因此, 在使用了物品命名任务的研究中所使用的信息通常为完全不确定的新信息、中等确定性新信息、以及较大确定性新信息。

完全不确定的新信息指儿童完全陌生的信息。例如, 新异物品的人工假词名称以及功能。在获取这类新信息的选择性信任任务中, 由于新信息本身并不能给儿童提供选择性信任的相关线索, 因此儿童通常会根据信息提供者的认识可靠性或社会性线索做出信任选择(Koenig, Clément, & Harris, 2004; Koenig & Harris, 2005; Vanderbilt et al., 2011; 车翰博, 2014; Corriveau et al., 2009)。而如果儿童在决策时既缺乏自我知觉的线索又缺乏信息提供者的认识可靠性线索, 那么他们就会考虑与信息提供者有关的社会性因素。例如, 儿童会根据信息提供者的性别(Ma & Wooley, 2013; Taylor, 2013)、面孔吸引力(Bascandziev & Harris, 2014)、口音(Kinzler et al., 2011)以及是否健康(Jaffer & Ma, 2015)等社会性因素做出信任选择。

中等确定性新信息包含两类事物各50%特征的信息。因此, 这类新信息通常是模棱两可的。例如, 一个看上去既像勺子又像钥匙的物体就属于正确性相等的新信息(Jaswal, 2004)。研究者发现, 在获取这类信息的选择性信任任务中, 儿童产生了以信息提供者的可信赖特征为基础的选择性信任(Corriveau et al., 2009)。研究者认为, 在该信息情境下, 由于新信息对两名信息提供者的支持程度是均等的, 无法为儿童的选择性信任提供线索, 因此, 儿童在做出选择性信任时只能参考与信息提供者的可信赖性有关的线索。

较大确定性新信息通常具备某一类事物的主导特征, 同时含有另一类事物的次要特征。例如, 一个看上去明显是鞋子, 但又带有两个小轮子的合成物。它既包含了鞋子的主导特征, 也包含了小汽车的部分特征。在获取这类新信息的选择性信任任务中, 如果可信赖的信息提供者给出的信息与合成物的主导特征不一致, 那么儿童就会调整对该信息提供者的认识性信任, 以自我知觉判断来代替可信赖他人提供的错误信息(Corriveau et al., 2009), 或对信息提供者的选择性信任降到随机水平(Bernard et al., 2015)。

综上所述, 知识信息作为可靠的信息源是有条件的。由知识线索导致的、对新信息的确定性是影响儿童选择性信任的重要因素。这与Chan和Tardif (2013)发现的“先前知识的强度效应(effect of prior knowledge strength)”有关。先前知识的强度效应指儿童面对可信赖的信息提供者所给出的信息与自身的知识经验相矛盾时, 如果儿童所要判断的信息完全可以凭借知识经验加以确定(典型的日常物品), 那么儿童不会接受该信息提供者的信息; 如果儿童所要判断的信息具有一定程度的不确定性, 且不能通过自己已有的知识经验加以判断, 那么他们极有可能接受该信息提供者的信息。

那么, 幼儿基于社会偏见的选择性信任是否受到信息提供者提供信息正确性的影响?在完全不确定的新信息情境、中等确定性的新信息情境以及较大确定性的新信息情境中, 幼儿基于社会知觉偏见的选择性信任如何?Bascandziev和Harris (2014)对完全不确定的新信息情境下, 4~5岁幼儿基于信息提供者面孔吸引力的选择性信任的研究发现, 这一阶段的儿童能够根据面孔的吸引力对信息提供者产生有偏见的选择性信任。但是, 4~5岁的男孩在“询问”任务中并未同女孩一样, 对高面孔吸引力的信息提供者产生选择性信任。研究者因此认为4~5岁的男孩没有对漂亮和丑陋的信息提供者产生选择性信任的倾向。但是, 仔细分析Bascandziev和Harris的这一研究发现, 研究中采用的不同吸引力的面孔照片是由大学生进行评定的, 然而大学生的美丑标准可能与幼儿的美丑标准不同。相关研究也表明, 幼儿与成人在对高吸引力面孔的选择倾向上存在差异(Boothroyd, Meins, Vukovic, & Burt, 2014)。因此, 本研究推测导致上述结果的原因可能是研究者选取的美丑标准不能被4~5岁男孩所觉察。此外, 研究者并未在该研究中报告高低吸引力面孔照片的等级差异, 差异的大小是否达到幼儿所识别的程度也并不确定。研究中将4岁和5岁两个年龄组合并起来所得到的选择性信任的性别差异是否混淆了各年龄组各自不同的特点?

基于对已有研究的怀疑, 本研究设计了两个实验。实验1通过改进前人研究中实验材料的不足以及自变量混淆的问题, 首先探讨4~6岁幼儿是否表现出以面孔吸引力为基础的选择性信任; 其次探讨幼儿选择性信任的年龄与性别特点。鉴于研究对象为4~6岁幼儿, 因此采用与这一阶段儿童年龄相仿的被试对面孔材料的美丑程度进行评定, 并选择美丑程度存在显著差异的图片作为实验材料。此外, 实验设计中增加年龄这一因素, 从而考察不同年龄幼儿选择性信任的发展特点。实验2在实验1的基础上考察信息提供者提供信息的正确性对幼儿选择性信任的影响。当儿童对信息提供者做出选择性信任时, 如果判断信息提供者可信度的线索既包括面孔吸引力因素, 又包括信息正确性因素, 那么儿童会对信息提供者产生怎样的选择性信任?此时, 儿童做出选择性信任是基于面孔吸引力还是信息正确性?随着年龄的增长, 幼儿在了解信息正确性之后, 是否对自己的选择性信任有所调整, 表现出一定的决策理性?

2 实验1:面孔吸引力对幼儿选择性信任的影响

2.1 实验目的与假设

本实验的目的是探究4~6岁幼儿在学习完全不确定的新信息时, 是否表现出以面孔吸引力为基础的选择性信任。如果出现, 则进一步探讨幼儿选择性信任的年龄与性别特点。

研究假设:(1)如果幼儿对高或低面孔吸引力信息提供者的信任水平大于随机水平, 说明面孔吸引力影响儿童的选择性信任; 如果等于随机水平, 则说明面孔吸引力不影响幼儿的选择性信任。(2)如果不同年龄、性别的幼儿选择性信任表现不同, 则说明幼儿的选择性信任与年龄和性别有关。

2.2 方法

2.2.1 被试

从市两所市区公立幼儿园以及一所市区公立小学选取被试195名。根据年龄将其分为4岁、5岁和6岁三个组, 详细信息见表1

表1   被试基本信息

年龄性别人数(n)月龄月龄范围
MSD最小值最大值
4岁3354.242.1652.0856.40
3055.201.8053.4057.00
5岁3365.162.8862.2868.04
3366.122.6463.4868.76
6岁3377.882.0475.8479.92
3378.242.0476.2080.28

新窗口打开| 下载CSV


2.2.2 实验材料

采用StandalonePsychoPy-1.82.01-win32编制实验程序, 在一台14英寸的Windows笔记本电脑上呈现实验材料并完成数据收集。

实验材料包括面孔吸引力对比明显的女性照片、新异的物品名称以及人工假词。

(1)面孔照片及其选取:初始照片共10对, 选自王雨晴、姚鹏飞和周国梅(2015)所合成的面孔照片。请51名4岁和5岁幼儿作为评定者(未参加正式实验), 就每对照片的熟悉性(认识或不认识)、相似性(同一个人或不是同一个人)和吸引力(漂亮或不漂亮)作出二择一判断。分别计算每对照片的相似性和吸引力的评定人数比率, 并进行拟合优度检验, 从中选择幼儿不认识且相似度和吸引力差异均显著的5对照片用于正式实验。

(2)新异物品照片及其对应的人工假词名称和配对名称的等价性评定:新异物品照片选自Horst和Hout (2016)所编制的新奇物品及新奇名称数据库(NOUN database)。评定者为50名4岁和5岁幼儿(未参加正式实验)。评定时每次向幼儿呈现一张新奇物品图片, 首先让他们回答是否认识该新异物品。然后告知其所对应的两个人工假词, 让幼儿选择自己认为正确的名称。经询问幼儿均不认识新异物品。然后将幼儿选择两名称的人数比进行统计, 并进一步进行拟合优度检验, 挑选检验结果差异不显著的5组作为实验材料。

2.2.3 实验设计

采用3(年龄:4岁、5岁、6岁)×2(性别:男、女)×2(任务类型:询问、赞同)的混合设计。其中任务类型为被试内变量, 年龄和性别为被试间变量。

因变量为被试对高面孔吸引力信息提供者的信任情况。共分为4个指标:(1)选择性信任指标:①询问率:即询问高面孔吸引力者的试次数比总询问选择试次数; ②赞同率:即赞同高面孔吸引力者提供名称的试次数比总赞同选择试次数。(2)选择性信任程度指标:①询问程度量:询问率减去0.5; ②赞同程度量:赞同率减去0.5。其中0.5是几率水平, 用询问率和赞同率减去几率水平, 表达的是偏离几率水平的程度。虽然询问程度量和赞同程度量的统计意义与询问率和赞同率相同, 但是前者在表达选择性信任程度时更准确, 因此本研究使用前者作为选择性信任程度的指标。

无关变量的控制:每对信息提供者面孔照片呈现的顺序随机; 信息提供者面孔照片与新异物品随机配对; 高、低吸引力面孔照片出现在屏幕左右两侧位置的概率随机; 每对名称由高、低吸引力面孔信息提供者提供的概率随机。

2.2.4 实验程序

实验采用个别施测, 持续时间约5~8分钟, 具体实验流程如下:

(1)收集被试信息

与幼儿建立熟悉和谐的关系, 并搜集被试相关信息。

(2)正式实验实施

正式实验分为5个试次, 每个试次的面孔照片、新奇物品以及人工假词名称不同, 具体的实验操作相同。每个试次的具体操作如下:

①导入实验、呈现新奇物品并询问幼儿是否认识该物体。首先, 告诉儿童:“接下来, 屏幕中会出现一些我们不知道的物体, 我想知道它们是什么, 你能来帮助我吗?”儿童回答完该问题之后在屏幕中央呈现新奇物品的照片。接着询问幼儿:“你见过这个东西吗?你知道它是什么吗?”然后记录幼儿的反应。若幼儿报告认识新奇的物品并给出了物品的名称, 则委婉地告诉他这并不是物品的名称。如果幼儿报告不认识, 则直接进行下一步骤。

②询问任务。在电脑屏幕中央并排呈现两张女性人脸照片, 然后向幼儿询问:“这两位阿姨中有一位阿姨知道刚刚那个物体的名字, 你想请谁告诉你这个物品的名字呢?”幼儿通过动作指示或口头报告的方式做出选择, 主试通过按键记录幼儿的反应。

③两名信息提供者给出物品名称。这一阶段, 先告诉幼儿:“这两位阿姨都告诉了我们刚刚这个物体名字, 但是其中只有一位阿姨说的是对的, 让我们先来看看她们都说了什么名字吧!”然后逐一介绍物品名称。呈现刺激时, 面孔照片位于屏幕正中央, 所提供的人工假词名称位于人脸照片的正下方。主试指向人脸照片并告诉幼儿对应信息提供者给出的名称。

④赞同任务。首先, 在屏幕中并排放置两张面孔照片, 在两张照片的正下方放置新奇物体。面孔照片和新奇物体整体居中。然后问儿童:“你觉得哪位阿姨说出的名字是这个物体真正的名字呢?” 幼儿通过动作指示或口头报告的方式做出选择, 主试通过按键记录幼儿的反应。

(3)结束实验

表达对幼儿的赞许和肯定并送给幼儿小贴画作为奖励。

2.3 结果

采用Microsoft Excel 2016和SPSS 19.0对数据进行处理与分析。

2.3.1 4~6岁幼儿对面孔的选择性信任

为了考察4~6岁幼儿是否对高面孔吸引力信息提供者产生选择性信任, 以4岁、5岁和6岁幼儿的询问率和赞同率为因变量进行单样本t检验(与随机水平0.5比较), 结果见表2

表2   4~6岁幼儿的询问率和赞同率与随机水平的比较

年龄性别(n)询问率(M ± SD)td赞同率(M ± SD)td
4岁男(33)0.61 ± 0.282.21*0.390.61 ± 0.282.17*0.39
女(30)0.71 ± 0.234.98***0.910.65 ± 0.283.03**0.54
总计(63)0.65 ± 0.264.75***0.580.63 ± 0.283.67***0.46
5岁男(33)0.77 ± 0.217.49***1.290.68 ± 0.234.63***0.78
女(33)0.85 ± 0.219.53***1.670.72 ± 0.264.76***0.85
总计(66)0.81 ± 0.2111.90***1.480.7 ± 0.246.67***0.83
6岁男(33)0.66 ± 0.243.81***0.670.65 ± 0.214.13***0.71
女(33)0.83 ± 0.257.73***1.320.7 ± 0.234.92***0.87
总计(66)0.75 ± 0.267.77***0.960.67 ± 0.226.44***0.77

注:*p<0.05, **p<0.01, *** p<0.001, 下同。

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表3   4~6岁幼儿的询问量和赞同量(M ± SD)

年龄性别(n)询问量赞同量
4岁男(33)0.11 ± 0.280.11 ± 0.28
女(30)0.21 ± 0.230.15 ± 0.28
5岁男(33)0.27 ± 0.210.18 ± 0.23
女(33)0.35 ± 0.210.22 ± 0.26
6岁男(33)0.16 ± 0.240.15 ± 0.21
女(33)0.33 ± 0.250.20 ± 0.23

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表2可知, 在询问任务和赞同任务中, 4岁、5岁和6岁的男孩和女孩对高面孔吸引力者的选择比率均显著高于随机水平, 这表明在不知道物体名称时, 4岁、5岁和6岁的男孩和女孩均选择向高面孔吸引力者询问信息; 当两人提供不同的物品名称时, 他们均倾向于赞同高面孔吸引力者给出的物品名称。这说明4~6岁幼儿, 无论男孩还是女孩均表现出了基于面孔吸引力的选择性信任。

2.3.2 选择性信任的年龄和性别特点

为了分析4~6岁幼儿对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任的年龄和性别特点, 以幼儿对高面孔吸引力者的询问程度量和赞同程度量为因变量, 进行3(年龄:4岁、5岁、6岁)×2(性别:男、女)×2(任务类型:询问、赞同)的重复测量方差分析。

方差分析的结果显示, 年龄主效应显著, F (2, 189) = 4.86, p < 0.01, 偏η2 = 0.05, 进一步对其进行多重比较(LSD), 结果发现:5岁幼儿对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任程度量高于4岁幼儿(p = 0.002), 4岁幼儿和6岁幼儿之间(p = 0.071)、5岁幼儿和6岁幼儿之间(p = 0.193)无显著差异。这说明5岁可能是幼儿基于面孔吸引力的选择性信任发展的转折期。

性别主效应显著, F (1, 189) = 7.35, p < 0.01, 偏η2 = 0.04, 女孩对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任程度高于男孩, 这说明女孩比男孩更加倾向于向高面孔吸引力者询问物品名称并赞同他们的观点。性别和年龄的交互作用不显著, F (2, 189) = 0.27, p = 0.765, 这说明男孩和女孩对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任程度随年龄的发展, 其变化趋势一致。

任务类型主效应显著, F (1, 189) = 4.86, p < 0.01, 偏η2 = 0.05, 4~6岁幼儿在询问任务中对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任程度比赞同任务中高, 说明信息对4~6岁幼儿的选择性信任具有一定作用。

任务类型和年龄的交互作用不显著, F(2, 189) = 1.82, p = 0.165, 说明4~6岁幼儿在询问任务和赞同任务中对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任程度的发展趋势一致。任务类型、年龄和性别的交互作用不显著, F(2, 189) = 0.38, p = 0.684, 这说明, 在两种任务中, 4~6岁的男孩和女孩对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任程度的发展趋势一致。任务类型和性别的交互作用显著, F(1, 189) = 4.38, p < 0.05, 偏η2 = 0.02 (图1)。

图1

图1   性别和任务类型的交互作用


进一步对图1中的数据进行简单效应分析发现:

(1)男孩对高面孔吸引力者的选择选择性信任程度不存在任务类型差异, F (1, 193) = 1.59, p = 0.208, 说明男孩在询问物品名称和赞同信息提供者提供的物品名称时, 选择相信高面孔吸引力者的程度是一致的。而女孩对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任程度存在任务类型差异, F(1, 193) = 18.03, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.09, 女孩在询问任务中对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任程度高于赞同任务, 这说明, 女孩在询问物品名称时比赞同信息提供者给出的物品名称时更加倾向于相信高面孔吸引力者。

(2)在询问任务中, 4~6岁幼儿对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任程度存在性别差异, F(1, 193) =12.10, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.06, 女孩对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任程度高于男孩。他们在赞同任务中则没有性别差异, F (1, 193) = 1.48, p = 0.225。这说明, 在向信息提供者询问物品名称时, 4~6岁的女孩比男孩更加倾向于相信高面孔吸引力者; 在赞同信息提供者给出的物品名称时, 男孩和女孩对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任程度相同。

2.4 讨论

实验1首先在前人研究的基础上改进了实验材料方面的局限, 探讨4~6岁的男孩和女孩是否表现出对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任。结果发现, 4~6岁的男孩和女孩均表现出对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任。这说明, 在Bascandziev和Harris (2014)的研究中, 4~5岁男孩没有表现出对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任, 很可能是所采用的面孔照片的美丑不能被4~5岁的男孩所觉察。因此, 当面孔材料的吸引力和熟悉度适合研究对象时, 4岁、5岁和6岁的男孩和女孩均表现出以面孔吸引力为基础的选择性信任。

幼儿基于面孔吸引力的选择性信任有两种解释。一是人际知觉中的“晕轮效应” (halo effect)。它是指受到优先支持的一方被赋予诸多积极的社会特质。即人们对一个人特定特质的感受影响了对该人整体的印象。在社会知觉中, 更有吸引力的面孔往往被知觉为更可信赖和更聪明的一方(Todorov, Pakrashi, & Oosterhof, 2009)。换而言之, 幼儿由于受到晕轮效应的影响, 将面孔吸引力带来的好感扩散到了对该信息提供者可信赖性的认识上。

另一种解释是普遍的负性偏见(general negativity bias)。即人们往往对环境中的负性事件给予更多关注, 更容易回忆且更容易受该事件影响而增加对其回避的行为(Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Finkenauer, & Vohs, 2001; Rozin & Royzman, 2001)。根据这种解释, 幼儿之所以选择性信任高面孔吸引力者, 是因为低面孔吸引力者是幼儿竭力回避的一方。由于幼儿对低面孔吸引力者的否定态度, 在二择一的选择中更多地选择了面孔吸引力较高的信息提供者。

虽然4~6岁的男孩和女孩均产生了基于面孔吸引力的选择性信任, 但是不同年龄幼儿的选择性信任程度并不完全一致。5岁幼儿的这种信任程度要比4岁幼儿强烈, 而5岁幼儿和6幼儿相同, 4岁幼儿和6岁幼儿也相同。这说明5岁幼儿可能是幼儿基于面孔的选择性信任发展的转折年龄。已有的研究发现, 5岁幼儿由于大脑的发育以及社会交流合作活动的增加(Hertz-Lazarowitz, Feitelson, Zahavi, & Hartup, 1981; 李丹, 1987; 刘金明, 阴国恩, 2001), 他们对信息提供者的面孔信息觉察更敏锐, 从而更多地在人际交往中使用这一信息来做出社会知觉和信任选择。这种分析与本研究的结果吻合。

实验1还探讨了不同任务类型中4~6岁幼儿的选择性信任的特点。结果发现, 在不同的任务类型中, 不同性别幼儿对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任程度不一致。在询问任务中, 女孩对高面孔吸引力者更加敏感, 这可能与女孩拥有更多与“美貌”这一概念相关的知识有关。已有的研究发现, 男孩在自发地对高低吸引力面孔进行分类命名方面要比女孩差(Rennels & Langlois, 2014b), 而且女孩比男孩拥有更强烈的面孔吸引力概念意识(Dion, 1973), 她们比男孩更多地参考女性的外貌(Miller, Lurye, Zosuls, & Ruble, 2009)。此外, 吸引力命名和分类任务中所表现的能力是对女性吸引力的刻板印象的一个预测因素(Rennels & Langlois, 2014a)。因此, 男孩和女孩在吸引力概念方面的差异可能导致了男孩在初次接触的询问任务上对女性信息提供者面孔吸引力的差异更不敏感。

女孩在询问任务中比赞同任务中更加信任高面孔引力者, 这可能与幼儿对两名信息提供者的接触时间不同有关。询问任务发生于初次接触, 而赞同任务则是对两名信息提供者的二次接触。那么初次接触时的信任判断任务可能受到幼儿面孔吸引力知觉敏锐度方面的影响。从而使年龄较小的幼儿和对面孔吸引力概念掌握不充分的男孩对高面孔吸引力者的选择倾向弱化。此外, 幼儿在两种任务中进行选择性信任时, 所提供的信息量是不同的。在询问任务中, 儿童只需在两种不同吸引力的面孔中做出选择, 而在赞同任务中儿童不仅需要考虑面孔吸引力这一因素, 还需考虑物体名称这一因素。虽然物品名称并没有意义上的区别并进行了声调平衡, 但是这一因素的加入, 可能使得幼儿对高面孔吸引力者的信任程度有所降低。

物品名称对儿童选择性信任是否存在制约作用, 其表现特点是什么, 发展规律如何, 构成了实验2关注的焦点问题。

3 实验2:信息正确性对幼儿选择性信任的影响

3.1 实验目的与假设

实验目的是考察信息提供者提供信息的正确性对幼儿基于面孔吸引力的选择性信任的影响。

研究假设:(1)在新异物品包含的两类事物特征均等, 且高、低面孔吸引力者提供的信息正确性为50% vs. 50%条件下, 如果幼儿对高面孔吸引力信息提供者的信任水平高于随机水平, 说明影响幼儿选择性信任的主要是面孔吸引力; 如果幼儿对高面孔吸引力信息提供者的信任水平等于随机水平, 说明影响幼儿选择性信任的是信息的正确性。(2)在新异物品包含的两类事物特征不均等, 且高面孔吸引力者提供的信息正确性为25%、低面孔吸引力者提供的信息正确性为75%的条件下, 如果幼儿对低面孔吸引力者的信任水平高于随机水平, 说明影响幼儿选择性信任的主要是信息的正确性; 如果幼儿对低面孔吸引力者的信任水平等于随机水平, 说明影响幼儿选择性信任的是信息的正确性和面孔吸引力; 如果幼儿对低面孔吸引力者的信任水平小于随机水平, 说明影响幼儿选择性信任的主要是面孔吸引力。

3.2 方法

3.2.1 被试

从市两所市区公立幼儿园以及一所市区公立小学选取被试177名。根据年龄将其分为4岁、5岁和6岁三个组, 详细信息见表4

表4   被试基本信息

年龄性别人数(n1, n2)正确性为50% vs. 50%正确性为25% vs. 75%
月龄月龄范围月龄月龄范围
MSD最小值最大值MSD最小值最大值
4岁(14, 15)54.664.1050.5658.7654.053.3350.7257.38
(20, 13)55.931.9254.0157.8555.291.5853.7156.87
5岁(16, 16)68.752.7665.9971.5164.813.5361.2868.34
(15, 12)66.753.0763.6869.8264.593.2961.3067.88
6岁(15, 14)77.711.7875.9379.4978.61.4977.1180.09
(12, 15)77.382.1575.2379.5377.81.7976.0179.59

注:n1为正确性为50% vs. 50%条件下被试人数, n2为正确性为25% vs. 75%条件下被试人数

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3.2.2 实验材料

实验程序的编制、数据呈现和搜集设备与实验1相同。

实验材料包括面孔照片、合成物照片。面孔照片与实验1相同。合成物照片选自Jaswal (2004)编制的合成物数据库。包含两类, 一类为事物特征正确性极大的合成物, 共5种, 称为75%特征合成物。即其中一个类别特征是该事物的主导特征。Jaswal等人的研究(Jaswal, 2004, 2006; Jaswal & Markman, 2007)已经证实2~5岁幼儿会根据25% vs. 75%特征所对应的类别来确定该合成物。另一类是由两个类别事物各50%的特征所构成的合成物, 共5种, 称为50%特征合成物。即从合成原则上看该合成物具有两个类别事物各50%的特征。因此, 在知觉上具有两可性。

为了确定50%特征合成物是否是由是两种物品按各50%的特征合成的, 以及75%特征合成物是否是由两个物品分别按25%和75%的特征合成的。本研究从市一所市区公立幼儿园以及一所市区公立小学选取4~6岁的男孩32名, 女孩38名。根据年龄将其分为4岁、5岁和6岁三个组。其中34名儿童对50%特征合成物进行评定, 36名儿童对75%特征合成物进行评定。评定时, 合成物的照片以单张形式呈现。然后请幼儿回答照片中的物体是合成物的特征A对应的物品名称还是合成物的特征B对应的物品名称。例如:“你觉得它是扣子还是球?” 评定结果显示, 4~6岁儿童对实验2采用的5种50%特征合成物对应的两种物品名称的选择人数比率与0.5无显著差异。对5种75%特征合成物评定时, 选择25%正确性的物品名称的人数比率与0.25无显著差异, 选择75%正确性的物品名称的人数比率与0.75无显著差异。这说明50%特征合成物在4~6岁儿童看来是由两种物品各50%的特征合成的, 75%特征合成物在4~6岁儿童看来是由两个物品按25%和75%的特征合成的。

3.2.3 实验设计

采用3(年龄:4岁、5岁、6岁)×2(信息的正确性:50% vs. 50%、25% vs. 75%)的被试间设计。在正确性为50% vs. 50%的条件下, 高面孔吸引力者和低面孔吸引力者各自为50%特征合成物提供不同的类别名称。在正确性为25% vs. 75%的条件下, 在面对75%特征合成物时, 高面孔吸引力者提供25%的特征所对应的类别名称, 而低面孔吸引力者提供75%的特征所对应的类别名称。因变量与实验1相同。

无关变量的控制:每对信息提供者面孔照片呈现的顺序随机; 信息提供者面孔照片与合成物品照片随机配对; 高、低吸引力面孔照片出现在屏幕左右两侧位置的概率随机。

3.2.4 实验程序

实验程序总体上与实验1相同, 不同之处在于幼儿在回答“你见过这个东西吗?你知道它是什么吗?”这两个问题时, 如果幼儿回答的名字是合成物的两个特征对应的名称之一(如勺子), 则主试追问幼儿, 可不可能是合成物特征对应的另一个名称(如钥匙)。幼儿回答该问题之后, 主试告诉幼儿不确定他给出的名称是否正确。

3.3 结果

数据处理方法同实验1。

3.3.1 4~6岁幼儿在两种信息正确性条件下的选择性信任

对4岁、5岁和6岁幼儿的询问率和赞同率进行统计, 结果见表5

表5   幼儿在不同信息正确性条件下对高面孔吸引力者的询问率和赞同率(M ± SD)

年龄组(n1, n2)正确性为50% vs. 50%正确性为25% vs. 75%
询问率赞同率询问率赞同率
4岁(34, 28)0.61 ± 0.290.55 ± 0.210.66 ± 0.220.31 ± 0.33
5岁(31, 28)0.71 ± 0.330.56 ± 0.270.72 ± 0.260.24 ± 0.23
6岁(27, 29)0.80 ± 0.220.58 ± 0.240.70 ± 0.260.17 ± 0.17

注:n1为正确性为50% vs. 50%条件下被试人数, n2为正确性为25% vs. 75%条件下被试人数。

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表5数据进行单样本t检验(与随机水平0.5比较), 结果见表6

表6   幼儿在不同信息正确性条件下的选择性信任

年龄组(n1, n2)正确性为50% vs. 50%正确性为25% vs. 75%
询问率赞同率询问率赞同率
tdtdtdtd
4岁(34, 28)2.24*2.101.443.87**0.73-3.10**0.58
5岁(31, 28)3.70**0.641.264.46***0.85-5.83***1.13
6岁(27, 29)7.03***1.361.704.22***0.77-10.62***1.94

注:n1为正确性为50% vs. 50%条件下被试人数, n2为正确性为25% vs. 75%条件下被试人数。

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在询问任务中, 两种信息正确性条件下, 4岁、5岁和6岁幼儿对高面孔吸引力者的选择比率均显著高于随机水平。这说明, 当幼儿在选择向他人询问物品名称信息时, 倾向于信任高面孔吸引力的信息提供者。

在赞同任务中, 4~6岁幼儿的选择性信任在两种信息正确性条件下的表现具有不同特点。在正确性为50% vs. 50%条件下, 幼儿对高面孔吸引力者的选择比率与随机水平没有差异, 说明幼儿对不同面孔吸引力的信息提供者并未产生选择性信任。在正确性为25% vs. 75%条件下, 幼儿对高面孔吸引力者的选择比率显著低于随机水平, 这说明幼儿倾向于赞同由低面孔吸引力者所提供的具有物体主导知觉特征的类别名称, 表现出对低面孔吸引力者的选择性信任。

由于幼儿在赞同任务的50% vs. 50%条件下, 并未对信息提供者产生选择性信任, 因此在考察选择性信任程度的特点时, 分别在不同任务条件下进行分析。

3.3.2 幼儿在询问任务中选择性信任程度的年龄特点

由3.3.1的结果可知, 无论信息正确性为50% vs. 50%还是25% vs. 75%, 4~6岁幼儿在询问任务上, 均表现出对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任。为了进一步确定其选择性信任程度是否存在年龄差异, 分别对两种信息正确性条件下三个年龄组幼儿的询问程度量进行统计, 结果见表7

表7   幼儿对高面孔吸引力者选择性信任程度

年龄组正确性为50% vs. 50%正确性为25% vs. 75%
nMSDnMSD
4岁340.110.29280.160.22
5岁310.220.33280.220.26
6岁270.210.29290.200.26

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以询问程度量为因变量, 进行2(信息正确性:50% vs. 50%、25% vs. 75%)×3(年龄:4岁、5岁、6岁)的被试间设计方差分析。结果发现, 年龄主效应不显著, F(2, 166) = 2.82, p = 0.062; 信息正确性主效应不显著, F (1, 166) = 0.08, p = 0.783; 年龄与信息正确性的交互作用不显著, F (2, 166) = 1.20, p = 0.303。这说明, 在向信息提供者询问信息时, 4岁、5岁和6岁幼儿在不同信息正确性条件下对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任程度相同。

3.3.3 幼儿在赞同任务中选择性信任程度的年龄特点

由3.3.1的结果可知, 在正确性为25% vs. 75%条件下, 4~6岁幼儿在赞同任务上, 均转而表现出对低面孔吸引力者的选择性信任。为进一步确定幼儿对低面孔吸引力者的选择性信任程度是否存在年龄差异, 以幼儿对低面孔吸引力者的询问程度量为因变量(4岁:M = 0.19, SD = 0.33; 5岁:M = 0.26, SD = 0.23; 6岁:M = 0.33, SD = 0.17), 以年龄为自变量进行单因素方差分析。结果发现年龄主效应不显著, F(2, 82) = 2.27, p = 0.110, 说明, 在信息正确性为25% vs. 75%条件下, 4岁、5岁和6岁幼儿对低面孔吸引力者的选择性信任程度相同。

3.4 讨论

实验2的目的是考察4~6岁幼儿做出选择性信任时, 是以信息提供者的面孔吸引力(社会偏见因素)为线索, 还是以信息正确性(认识性因素)为线索的。我们将信息正确性设置为正确性相等和正确性不等两种条件。在正确性相等条件下, 两名信息提供者分别提供50%特征合成物对应的物品名称。在正确性不等条件下, 高面孔吸引力者提供75%特征合成物的25%特征对应的物品名称, 而低面孔吸引力者则提供75%特征对应的物品名称。结果发现, 在询问任务中, 无论正确性相等还是不等, 幼儿均表现出对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任。这说明, 在该条件下, 幼儿选择向他人询问信息时主要依据信息提供者的面孔吸引力, 而不是信息的正确性。这可能是因为询问任务中幼儿对信息提供者做出选择性信任时可使用的线索只有信息提供者的面孔吸引力信息。因此, 当信息情境中缺乏相关知识线索时, 幼儿将信息提供者的面孔吸引力作为选择性信任的依据, 从而表现出对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任。

此外, 4~6岁幼儿在询问任务中, 无论在正确性相等条件下, 还是在正确性不等条件下均不存在选择性信任程度的年龄差异。这一结果与实验1中询问任务上发现的选择性信任的年龄差异不一致。导致这一现象的原因可能是两个实验中认识对象本身的特点不同。实验1中所学习的物品对于幼儿是完全陌生的, 而实验2中所学习的物品则是由幼儿所熟悉的物品合成的新物品。由于实验2中幼儿具有新奇物品的相关知识经验, 因此使得幼儿对信息提供者面孔吸引力的依赖程度降低。这表明即使有关认识对象的类别知识无法为幼儿提供决断的依据, 但幼儿仍然更多地关注了类别知识本身。

然而, 在赞同任务中, 4~6岁幼儿在不同信息正确性条件下对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任并不一致。在正确性相等条件下, 幼儿未对不同面孔吸引力的信息提供者产生选择性信任。而在正确性不等条件下, 幼儿选择性信任低面孔吸引力的信息提供者。这一结果与研究假设一致。说明幼儿对信息提供者的选择性信任并非完全依赖于面孔吸引力。当信息提供者提供特征合成物对应的物品名称时, 幼儿能够根据自己的经验, 将合成物判断为更大特征对应的物品(Jaswal, 2004, 2006; Jaswal & Markman, 2007)。此时, 幼儿不再通过面孔吸引力来判断信息提供者是否是可信赖的, 而是根据信息的正确性。以往的研究发现, 4岁幼儿就能够在信息提供者的正确性、口音或熟悉性中, 选择信息提供者的正确性作为信任判断的依据(Corriveau, Kinzler, & Harris, 2012; Harris et al., 2012; Ronfard, & Lane, 2017)。这表明, 4~6岁幼儿已经能够对信息提供者进行相对理性的判断。

研究发现, 4岁、5岁和6岁幼儿在赞同任务中, 在正确性不等条件下对低面孔吸引力者的选择性信任程度一致。这与实验1中, 4~6岁幼儿在赞同任务中对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任程度的年龄差异不同。实验1中所学习的物品对于幼儿是完全陌生, 幼儿无法通过知识经验判断物品的类别。实验2中, 在正确性不等条件下, 由于合成物的特征差异明显, 幼儿能够根据知识经验判断合成物的类别, 因此当信息提供者提供的物品名称与合成物的较大特征不一致时, 4~6岁幼儿能够做出一致的理性判断。

4 总讨论

4.1 幼儿选择性信任研究的材料选择

Bascandziev和Harris (2014)的研究发现, 4~5岁幼儿能够根据面孔吸引力对信息提供者产生有偏见的选择性信任。但是, 4、5岁的男孩在询问任务中并未表现出对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任。究其研究操作的细节, 发现在他们的研究中, 面孔照片的美丑程度是由大学生进行评定的。那么, 是否是因为4、5岁的男孩对面孔美丑的识别比较迟钝?虽然成年人已经能够分辨出面孔照片的美丑, 但是在男孩看来没有什么差别?如果儿童根本就没有分辨出面孔照片的差异, 从而导致对不同吸引力的面孔照片的选择没有明显的偏向, 那就不能说儿童没有选择性信任。

为了消除上述疑虑, 实验1首先请4~5岁幼儿对面孔材料的吸引力进行评定, 然后选择面孔吸引力差异明显的照片组对作为实验材料。利用同样的范式对幼儿的选择性信任进行了探讨。结果发现, 不仅女孩表现出选择性信任, 4岁、5岁和6岁的男孩也都表现出对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任。这与Bascandziev和Harris (2014)的研究结果并不一致。说明Bascandziev的研究结果中混淆了材料适宜性这一无关变量。当面孔材料的美丑程度由4~5岁幼儿进行评价时, 4~5幼儿的男孩和女孩均表现出对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任。这说明, 面孔材料的适宜性是导致Bascandziev等人研究中4~5岁幼儿未表现出对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任的原因。实验1对面孔材料的改进对幼儿基于面孔吸引力的选择性信任的认识更加准确。

4.2 幼儿选择性信任的指标

前人研究在考察幼儿选择性信任程度差异时, 往往采用询问率和赞同率作为因变量(Kinzler et al., 2011; Bascandziev & Harris, 2014; Bascandziev & Harris, 2016)。而本研究则使用询问程度量和赞同程度量。询问程度量和赞同程度量是指幼儿对信息提供者做出二择一的选择性信任判断时, 其结果偏离随机水平(0.5)的程度, 即幼儿对信息提供者的信任程度。虽然询问程度量和赞同程度量与询问率和赞同率在进行数据分析时, 除了均值存在0.5的差异, 其他结果均一致。但是, 询问率和赞同率在概念上是对“选择反应”的直接描述, 而不是对选择性信任程度的直接描述; 而询问程度量和赞同程度量则是“对选择性信任的程度”的直接描述。而且选择性信任的研究主要考察不同条件下被试是否存在选择性信任; 如果存在, 则考察不同被试之间选择性信任的程度差异。若采用询问程度量和赞同程度量作为因变量指标, 会使得因变量在表述上与研究目的更加贴切, 因此在本研究中我们采用了这两项指标作为选择性信任程度的因变量。

4.3 幼儿选择性信任的任务类型差异

研究结果发现, 幼儿的选择性信任存在任务类型差异。询问任务中幼儿对高面孔吸引力者的选择性信任程度高于赞同任务。这可能是因为询问任务中缺乏选择性信任判断的认知线索, 因此幼儿对信息提供者的选择可能包含了更多的情感唤醒。而赞同任务中, 由于幼儿的知识线索中增加了信息提供者给出的物品名称信息, 因此幼儿启动了认知和语义的加工, 即理性判断。研究者发现, 行为决策时基于情感的评价比基于认知的评价更显极端(Pham & Avnet, 2009)。因此, 当信息为完全陌生时理性成分少, 幼儿的选择性信任高于随机水平; 当信息正确性为50% vs. 50%时理性成分增加, 幼儿的选择性信任处于随机水平; 当信息正确性为25% vs. 75%时理性程度占主导, 幼儿选择了提供较大正确信息的低面孔吸引力者。既然询问任务中幼儿的选择可能更多的是情感判断, 那么询问任务的结果表达的是否是信任判断呢?

研究者认为, 信任判断这一决策过程既包括理性成分也包括非理性成分(Ellsberg, 1961)。因此, 本研究认为询问任务中幼儿做出信任判断既包括情感唤醒又包括认知判断。Todorov (2008)的研究发现, 对中性情绪面孔可信度的评价与情绪面孔的效价评价类似, 可信面孔具有正效价, 不可行面孔具有负效价。此外, Oosterhof和Todorov (2009)等人的研究发现, 对相同情绪强度的面孔而言, 人们从信任面孔中知觉到的愉悦情绪要比不信任面孔高; 相反, 从不信任面孔中知觉到的愤怒情绪要比信任面孔高。信任反映了人们对事物的态度和认识, 因此, 人脑会对“信任”这一认识做出积极或消极的评价, 这种评价会对后续行为产生影响(杨莉, 胡竹菁, 2010)。

由此, 本研究推测, 询问任务中儿童的心理活动过程应该是“知觉-判断-情感-决策”, 即“看到对方的长相-判断对方可信与否-产生正性或负性情绪-做出询问与否的决策”。四个环节环环相扣。其中核心环节应该是“判断对方可信与否”, 一旦儿童做出了对方值得信任的判断, 就可以引发积极情绪和趋近的决策; 而一旦被试做出了对方不值得信任的判断, 其后续的情感也一定是负性的, 决策就会是回避的。所以, 即使在询问任务中引发的心理活动过程比较复杂, 但其趋近或回避的反应基础, 还是信任或不信任(图2)。

图2

图2   幼儿基于面孔的选择性信任心理加工过程示意图


在这一研究范式中, “询问行为反映了儿童对环境的信任”这一逻辑要成立, 有二个前提:一个前提是一旦信任, 就引起积极情绪; 一旦不信任就引起消极情绪。另一个前提是, 一旦引起积极情绪, 就会带来趋近行为; 一旦引起消极情绪, 就会带来回避行为。未来的研究可以把检验上述前提条件是否成立作为研究选题。

4.4 幼儿选择性信任的发展特点

研究关注了幼儿有偏见的选择性信任的年龄差异。结果发现, 5岁比4岁高, 5岁和6岁之间、4岁和6岁之间无显著差异。这一结果与幼儿基于旁观者非言语线索的选择性信任发展趋势一致(曹梦露, 龚文进, 汤永隆, 2012)。5岁幼儿随着大脑的发展和社会化程度的提高, 他们比4岁幼儿更容易在采信他人信息的情况下受到社会知觉因素的影响, 甚至与信息提供者可信赖性无关的社会偏见因素也对他们的社会认知产生重要影响。从这个角度来看, 对幼儿适应社会具有积极的意义的社会化反而对幼儿的认识活动产生了消极的影响。这是值得教育者重视的一点, 因此如何引导这一阶段的幼儿更为客观地看待提供信息的他人是引导教育的一个关键点。

研究还发现, 在向他人询问信息时女孩比男孩更加信任高面孔吸引力者。原因可能是女孩对面孔信息更敏感, 在做信任判断时更倾向于依赖对方的外貌特征。此外, 已有研究发现, 在人类的一生中, 女性在面孔知觉和面孔记忆方面的能力要比男性强(Sommer, Hildebrandt, Kunina-Habenicht, Schacht, & Wilhelm, 2013), 这也可能导致女孩比男孩更加信任高面孔吸引力者。

4.5 认知因素对幼儿选择性信任的影响

实验2探讨了认知因素, 即信息提供者提供信息的正确性对幼儿信任他人提供信息的影响。虽然幼儿在社会学习过程中会表现出对他人的偏见, 但是应当明确的是这种选择性信任并没有特别坚实的基础。一旦出现了认识性线索, 如信息正确性, 尤其是当与认知对象有关的知识线索对决断具有重要的导向性时, 幼儿会灵活地调整自己先前的选择性信任。实验2的结果发现, 从4岁到6岁的幼儿, 都在长相丑陋但提供信息正确性高的条件下, 选择相信长相丑陋的人。这说明儿童在进行决策的时候, 还是具有一定的理性的。这与Bascandziev和Harris (2016)的研究结果并不一致。他们的研究发现, 4~5岁幼儿的选择性信任更多的受到面孔吸引力的影响。这可能是因为两个研究的范式不同。他们的研究采用了“熟悉—测试”的物品命名范式, 而实验2则只进行测试阶段。因此, 熟悉阶段的操作可能使得儿童更加关注信息提供者的吸引力因素, 从而导致两个研究结果不同。此外, 实验2对物品信息的正确性进行了控制, 分为中等正确性和较大正确性, 而他们的研究则没有。这可能也是导致两个研究结果不一致的原因。

但令人不解的是, 4岁幼儿和6岁幼儿受信息正确性的影响趋势是相同的。按照一般的理解, 儿童年龄越小, 其理性决策的能力越差。但在本研究中, 4岁幼儿与6岁幼儿具有同样的信息依赖。在信息不带偏向(不明确, 50%正确)的情况下, 4~6岁幼儿都喜欢向漂亮的人寻求帮助, 而当信息具有明显的对错倾向的时候, 4~6岁幼儿都倾向于依据信息做出选择。这令人思考, 单纯依靠外貌来做出决策的儿童是否存在?依据信息做出决策, 这种能力是什么时候发生的?这些还有待继续探讨。

4.6 被选择者的性别差异

本研究采用女性照片作为实验材料, 考察了幼儿对女性面孔的选择性信任。那么, 男性的面孔吸引力是否会影响幼儿的选择性信任呢?事实上, 在本研究的面孔材料评定过程中, 请4~5岁幼儿分别对女性面孔照片和男性面孔照片进行了评定。评定结果发现, 4~5岁幼儿对男性面孔的吸引力不能进行明确的分辨。这说明, 幼儿对男性面孔美丑的分辨能力的发展可能慢于对女性面孔美丑的分辨能力。关于“美即是好的”刻板印象的研究中, 部分研究认为这种效应在被知觉对象是男性和女性时均存在(Eagly, Ashmore, Makhijani, & Longo, 1991; Langlois et al., 2000)。然而, 有些研究则发现这种效应是存在被知觉者性别差异的(Jackson, Hunter, & Hodge, 1995; Feingold, 1992; Rennels & Langlois, 2014a)。男性信息提供者同样是幼儿获取信息、进行间接学习的一个重要信息源。那么, 男性面孔吸引力是否也会影响幼儿的选择性信任呢?这是未来研究值得关注的地方。

5 结论

(1)在信息缺乏时, 4~6岁幼儿普遍存在有偏见的选择性信任; 女孩比男孩更易受到社会偏见因素的影响。(2)在信息明确时, 4~6岁幼儿也能做出相对理性的选择性信任。

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The creator of an artifact, by virtue of having made the object, has privileged knowledge about its intended function. Do children recognize that the label an artifact's creator uses can convey this privileged information? 3- and 4-year-olds were presented with an object that looked like a member of one familiar artifact category, but which the speaker referred to with the label of a different familiar category (e.g. a key-like object was called a “spoon”). Children who heard the speaker refer to the object as something she made were more likely to assign its function on the basis of the anomalous label she used than those who heard it referred to as something the speaker found. Thus, even very young children expect a unique connection between the label the creator of an artifact uses and the function she intends it to have.

Jaswal V.K., & Markman E.M . ( 2007).

Looks aren't everything: 24-month-olds' willingness to accept unexpected labels

Journal of Cognition and Development, 8( 1), 93-111.

DOI:10.1080/15248370709336995      URL     [本文引用: 2]

Jaswal V.K.&, Neely L.A, 2006).

Adults don't always know best preschoolers use past reliability over age when learning new words

Psychological Science, 17( 9), 757-758.

DOI:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01778.x      URL    

Kinzler K. D., Corriveau K. H., & Harris P. L . ( 2011).

Children’s selective trust in native-accented speakers

Developmental Science, 14( 1), 106-111.

DOI:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.00965.x      URL     [本文引用: 3]

Koenig M. A., Clément F., & Harris P. L . ( 2004).

Trust in testimony: Children's use of true and false statements

Psychological Science, 15( 10), 694-698.

DOI:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00742.x      URL     PMID:15447641      [本文引用: 1]

The extent to which young children monitor and use the truth of assertions to gauge the reliability of subsequent testimony was examined. Three- and 4-year-old children were presented with two informants, an accurate labeler and an inaccurate labeler. They were then invited to learn names for novel objects from these informants. The children correctly monitored and identified the informants on the basis of the truth of their prior labeling. Furthermore, children who explicitly identified the unreliable or reliable informant across two tasks went on to demonstrate selective trust in the novel information provided by the previously reliable informant. Children who did not consistently identify the unreliable or reliable informant proved indiscriminate.

Koenig M.A.&, Harris P.L, 2005).

Preschoolers mistrust ignorant and inaccurate speakers

Child Development, 76( 6), 1261-1277.

DOI:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00849.x      URL     PMID:16274439      [本文引用: 2]

Being able to evaluate the accuracy of an informant is essential to communication. Three experiments explored preschoolers' (N = 119) understanding that, in cases of conflict, information from reliable informants is preferable to information from unreliable informants. In Experiment 1, children were presented with previously accurate and inaccurate informants who presented conflicting names for novel objects. 4-year-olds-but not 3-year-olds-predicted whether an informant would be accurate in the future, sought, and endorsed information from the accurate over the inaccurate informant. In Experiment 2, both age groups displayed trust in knowledgeable over ignorant speakers. In Experiment 3, children extended selective trust when learning both verbal and nonverbal information. These experiments demonstrate that preschoolers have a key strategy for assessing the reliability of information.

Koenig M.A.&, Jaswal V.K, 2011).

Characterizing children’s expectations about expertise and incompetence: Halo or pitchfork effects?

Child Development, 82( 5), 1634-1647.

DOI:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01618.x      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Koenig M.A.&, Woodward A.L, 2010).

Sensitivity of 24- month-olds to the prior inaccuracy of the source: Possible mechanisms

Developmental Psychology, 46( 4), 815-26.

DOI:10.1037/a0019664      URL     PMID:20604604      [本文引用: 1]

Three studies examined 24-month-olds' sensitivity to the prior accuracy of the source of information and the way in which young children modify their word learning from inaccurate sources. In Experiments 1A, 2, and 3, toddlers interacted with an accurate or inaccurate speaker who trained and tested children's comprehension of a new word-object link. In Experiment 1, children performed less systematically in response to an inaccurate than to an accurate source. In Experiments 2 and 3, after toddlers' comprehension of the new word-object links was tested by the original source, a second speaker requested the target objects. In Experiment 2, children responded randomly in response to the second speaker's requests when novel words were previously presented by an inaccurate source. In Experiment 3, toddlers responded randomly in response to both speakers in the inaccurate condition when their memory for words was taxed by a brief delay period. Taken together, these findings suggest that toddlers attend to accuracy information, that they treat inaccuracy as a feature of a particular individual, and that the word-object representations formed as a result may be fragile and short lived. Findings are discussed in terms of possible mechanisms by which children adjust their word learning from problematic speakers.

Kushnir T., Vredenburgh C., & Schneider L. A . ( 2013).

"Who can help me fix this toy?" The distinction between causal knowledge and word knowledge guides preschoolers' selective requests for information

Developmental Psychology, 49( 3), 446-453.

DOI:10.1037/a0031649      URL     PMID:23339590      [本文引用: 1]

Preschoolers use outcomes of actions to infer causal properties of objects. We asked whether they also use them to infer others' causal abilities and knowledge. In Experiment 1, preschoolers saw 2 informants, 2 tools, and 2 broken toys. One informant (the labeler) knew the names of the tools, but his actions failed to activate the toys. The other (the fixer) was ignorant about the names of the tools, but his actions succeeded in activating the toys. Four-year-olds (and to a lesser extent, 3-year-olds) selectively directed requests for new labels to the labeler and directed requests to fix new broken toys to the fixer. In a second experiment, 4-year-olds also endorsed a fixer's (over a nonfixer's) causal explanations for mechanical failures. They did not, however, ask the fixer about new words (Experiments 1 and 2) or artifact functions (Experiment 1). Thus, preschoolers take demonstrated causal ability as a sign of specialized causal knowledge, which suggests a basis for developing ideas about causal expertise.

Langlois J. H., Kalakanis L., Rubenstein A. J., Larson A., Hallam M., & Smoot M . ( 2000).

Maxims or myths of beauty? A meta-analytic and theoretical review

Psychological Bulletin, 126( 3), 390-423.

DOI:10.1037/0033-2909.126.3.390      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Li D.Ed). ( 1987) . Childhood developmental psychology. Shanghai: East China Normal University Press.

[本文引用: 1]

[ 李丹 . (主编).( 1987). 儿童发展心理学. 上海: 华东师范大学出版社.]

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Li Q-G., Heyman G. D., Xu F., & Lee K . ( 2014).

Young children’s use of honesty as a basis for selective trust

Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 117, 59-72.

DOI:10.1016/j.jecp.2013.09.002      URL     PMID:24149377      [本文引用: 1]

The ability of 3- to 5-year-old children to reason about trust in relation to the honest behavior of others was examined across five studies (total N=496). Results showed that although 4-year-olds differentiated between honest and dishonest sources in their trust judgments, only 5-year-olds demonstrated a clear capacity to differentiate between honesty and a trust-irrelevant dimension (i.e., cleanliness) in these trust judgments. This was seen in their tendency to trust honest characters more than clean ones and to distrust dishonest characters more than unclean ones. This was also seen in their tendency to choose honest unclean characters over dishonest clean ones in their trust judgments. Results suggest that children use honesty as a basis for selective trust even before they appreciate which specific traits are relevant to trust.

Liu D., Vanderbilt K. E., & Heyman G. D . ( 2013).

Selective trust: Children's use of intention and outcome of past testimony

Developmental Psychology, 49( 3), 439-445.

DOI:10.1037/a0031615      URL     PMID:23339589      [本文引用: 1]

Children's epistemic vigilance was examined for their reasoning about the intentions and outcomes of informants' past testimony. In a 2 x 2 factorial design, 5- and 6-year-olds witnessed informants offering advice based on the intent to help or deceive others about the location of hidden prizes, with the advice leading to positive or negative outcomes. Informants then suggested to the children where to search for hidden prizes. Children trusted informants who had previously tried to help others more than informants who had previously tried to deceive others, regardless of past outcome. In addition, children trusted informants with positive past outcomes more than informants with negative past outcomes, regardless of intention. By varying intention and outcome independently, this study revealed that when children are deciding whether to trust testimony, they take into account the informant's mental states but also give slightly greater weight to the informants' past outputs.

Liu J.M., & Yin G. E . ( 2001).

Review on the development of children's classification

Psychological Science, 24( 6), 707-709.

[本文引用: 1]

[ 刘金明, 阴国恩 . ( 2001).

儿童分类发展研究综述

心理科学, 24( 6), 707-709.]

DOI:10.3969/j.issn.1671-6981.2001.06.018      URL     [本文引用: 1]

1  引言  分类研究是认知发展研究的一个重要领域。人类的分类能力是神奇的 ,我们所面对的世界如此千变万化 ,有数不清的事物和物体 ,每个人的经验又是如此的独特 ,但人们对于事物的分类是如此的一致 ,以至于很少有人做出错误的分类。例如 ,很少有人把马看成植物 ,把汽车当

Ma L., & Ganea P.A. ( 2010).

Dealing with conflicting information: Young children's reliance on what they see versus what they are told

Developmental Science, 13( 1), 151-160.

DOI:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00878.x      URL     PMID:20121871      [本文引用: 1]

Children often learn about the world through direct observation. However, much of children's knowledge is acquired through the testimony of others. This research investigates how preschoolers weigh these two sources of information when they are in conflict. Children watched as an adult hid a toy in one location. Then the adult told children that the toy was in a different location (i.e. false testimony). When retrieving the toy, 4- and 5-year-olds relied on what they had seen and disregarded the adult's false testimony. However, most 3-year-olds deferred to the false testimony, despite what they had directly observed. Importantly, with a positive searching experience based on what they saw, or with a single prior experience with an adult as unreliable, 3-year-olds subsequently relied on their first-hand observation and disregarded the adult's false testimony. Thus, young children may initially be credulous toward others' false testimony that contradicts their direct observation, but skepticism can develop quickly through experience.

Ma L., & Woolley J.D. ( 2013).

Young children's sensitivity to speaker gender when learning from others

Journal of Cognition and Development, 14( 1), 100-119.

DOI:10.1080/15248372.2011.638687      URL     [本文引用: 2]

http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15248372.2011.638687

Mascaro O.& Sperber D. ,( 2009).

The moral, epistemic, and mindreading components of children’s vigilance towards deception

Cognition, 112( 3), 367-380.

DOI:10.1016/j.cognition.2009.05.012      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Miller C. F., Lurye L. E., Zosuls K. M., & Ruble D. N . ( 2009).

Accessibility of gender stereotype domains: Developmental and gender differences in children

Sex Roles, 60( 11-12), 870-881.

DOI:10.1007/s11199-009-9584-x      URL     PMID:2709873      [本文引用: 1]

The present research examined developmental and gender differences in the relative accessibility of different gender stereotype domains. A 1988 Northeastern US sample of 256 children ages 3 to 1002years old provided open-ended descriptions of girls and boys. Responses were coded by domain to examine differences by grade, gender of participant, and gender of target. Analyses revealed that girls and older children provided a higher proportion of stereotypes, and that appearance stereotypes were particularly prevalent in descriptions of girls and activity/trait stereotypes were more prevalent in descriptions of boys. Results are discussed in terms of implications for research on the stereotype knowledge–behavior link and the need for more attention to the role of appearance stereotypes in the gender stereotype literature.

Nurmsoo E., & Robinson E.J. ( 2009).

Identifying unreliable informants: Do children excuse past inaccuracy?

Developmental Science, 12( 1), 41-47.

DOI:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00750.x      URL     PMID:19120411      [本文引用: 1]

In three experiments ( N = 123; 148; 28), children observed a video in which two speakers offered alternative labels for unfamiliar objects. In Experiment 1, 3- to 5-year-olds endorsed the label given by a speaker who had previously labeled familiar objects accurately, rather than that given by a speaker with a history of inaccurate labeling, even when the inaccurate speaker erred only while blindfolded. In Experiments 2 and 3, 3- to 7-year-olds showed no preference for the label given by a previously inaccurate but blindfolded speaker, over that given by a second inaccurate speaker with no obvious excuse for erring. Children based their endorsements on speakers' history of accuracy or inaccuracy irrespective of the speakers' information access at the time, raising doubts that children made mentalistic interpretations of speakers' inaccuracy.

Oosterhof N.N., & Todorov A. , ( 2009).

Shared perceptual basis of emotional expressions and trustworthiness impressions from faces

Emotion, 9( 1), 128-133.

DOI:10.1037/a0014520      URL     PMID:19186926      [本文引用: 1]

Abstract Using a dynamic stimuli paradigm, in which faces expressed either happiness or anger, the authors tested the hypothesis that perceptions of trustworthiness are related to these expressions. Although the same emotional intensity was added to both trustworthy and untrustworthy faces, trustworthy faces who expressed happiness were perceived as happier than untrustworthy faces, and untrustworthy faces who expressed anger were perceived as angrier than trustworthy faces. The authors also manipulated changes in face trustworthiness simultaneously with the change in expression. Whereas transitions in face trustworthiness in the direction of the expressed emotion (e.g., high-to-low trustworthiness and anger) increased the perceived intensity of the emotion, transitions in the opposite direction decreased this intensity. For example, changes from high to low trustworthiness increased the intensity of perceived anger but decreased the intensity of perceived happiness. These findings support the hypothesis that changes along the trustworthiness dimension correspond to subtle changes resembling expressions signaling whether the person displaying the emotion should be avoided or approached. (c) 2009 APA, all rights reserved

Pham M.T., & Avnet T. , ( 2009).

Contingent reliance on the affect heuristic as a function of regulatory focus

Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 108( 2), 267-278.

DOI:10.1016/j.obhdp.2008.10.001      URL    

Results from four studies show that the reliance on affect as a heuristic of judgment and decision making is more pronounced under a promotion focus than under a prevention focus. Two different manifestations of this phenomenon were observed. Studies 1–3 show that different types of affective inputs are weighted more heavily under promotion than under prevention in person-impression formation, product evaluations, and social recommendations. Study 4 additionally shows that valuations performed under promotion are more scope-insensitive—a characteristic of affect-based valuations—than valuations performed under prevention. The greater reliance on affect as a heuristic under promotion seems to arise because promotion-focused individuals tend to find affective inputs more diagnostic, not because promotion increases the reliance on peripheral information per se.

Rennels J.L.&, Langlois J.H, 2014 a).

Children's attractiveness, gender, and race biases: A comparison of their strength and generality

Child Development, 85( 4), 1401-1418.

DOI:10.1111/cdev.12226      URL     PMID:4107158      [本文引用: 2]

Although research suggests that facial attractiveness biases significantly affect social development and interactions, these biases are understudied in the developmental literature and are overlooked when designing interventions relative to gender and race. The authors, therefore, compared how much bias 3- to 11-year-olds (N = 102) displayed in the three domains. They also examined whether bias and flexibility (understanding that different social groups can possess similar attributes) were related across domains. Children's attractiveness biases, particularly for girl targets, were as strong as or stronger than gender or race biases. Flexibility, but not bias, was related across domains. Developmental scientists and policy makers should increase efforts toward understanding development of attractiveness biases and determine which methods of teaching flexibility are most successful at reducing bias across domains.

Rennels J.L.&, Langlois J.H, 2014 b).

Children’s classification and lexicalization of attractiveness, gender, and race: Differential displays of these concepts and relatedness to bias and flexibility

Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 126( 6), 1-18.

DOI:10.1016/j.jecp.2014.02.009      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Robinson E. J., Butterfill S. A., & Nurmsoo E . ( 2011).

Gaining knowledge via other minds: Children's flexible trust in others as sources of information

British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 29( 4), 961-980.

DOI:10.1111/j.2044-835X.2011.02036.x      URL     PMID:21995747      [本文引用: 1]

In five experiments, we examined 3- to 6-year-olds understanding that they could gain knowledge indirectly from someone who had seen something they had not. Consistent with previous research, children judged that an informant, who had seen inside a box, knew its contents. Similarly, when an informant marked a picture to indicate her suggestion as to the content of the box, 3- to 4-year-olds trusted this more frequently when the informant had seen inside the box than when she had not. Going beyond previous research, 3- to 4-year-olds were also sensitive to informants relevant experience when they had to look over a barrier to see the marked picture, or ask for the barrier to be raised. Yet when children had to elicit the informant's suggestion, rather than just consult a suggestion already present, even 4- to 5-year-olds were no more likely to do so when the informant had seen the box's content than when she had not, and no more likely to trust the well-informed suggestion than the uninformed one. We conclude that young children who can ask questions may not yet fully understand the process by which they can gain accurate information from someone who has the experience they lack.

Ronfard S., & Lane J.D. ( 2017).

Preschoolers continually adjust their epistemic trust based on an informant's ongoing accuracy

Child Development, 89( 2), 414-429.

DOI:10.1111/cdev.12720      URL     PMID:28105637      [本文引用: 1]

Children aged 4 to 7 years (N = 120) played four rounds of a find-the-sticker game. For eachround, an informant looked into two cups and made a claim about which cup held a sticker. Atthe end of each round, children guessed the sticker's location, and then the sticker's actuallocation was revealed. For three of the rounds, the informant accurately reported the sticker'slocation. But critically, for one round--either round 1, 2, or 3--she was inaccurate. Childrencontinually adjusted their trust in the informant as they obtained more information about heraccuracy. Relations between the informant's pattern of accuracy and children's trust were robust, neither mediated nor moderated by children inferences about her intent or traits.

Rozin P., & Royzman E.B. ( 2001).

Negativity bias, negativity dominance, and contagion

Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5( 4), 296-320.

DOI:10.1207/S15327957PSPR0504_2      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Sabbagh M.A.&, Baldwin D.A, 2001).

Learning words from knowledgeable versus ignorant speakers: Links between preschoolers' theory of mind and semantic development

Child Development, 72( 4), 1054-1070.

DOI:10.1111/1467-8624.00334      URL     PMID:11480934      [本文引用: 1]

Two studies addressed whether children consider speakers' knowledge states when establishing initial word-referent links. In Study 1, forty-eight 3- and 4-year-olds were taught two novel words by a speaker who expressed either knowledge or ignorance about the words' referents. Children showed better word learning when the speaker was knowledgeable. In Study 2, forty-eight 3- and 4-year-olds were taught two novel words by a speaker who expressed uncertainty about their referents. Whether the uncertainty truly reflected ignorance, however, differed across conditions. In one condition, the speaker said he made the object himself and thus, he was knowledgeable. In the other condition, the speaker stated that the object was made by a friend and thus, expressed ignorance about it. Four-year-olds learned better in the speaker-made than in the friend-made condition; 3-year-olds, however, showed relatively poor learning in both conditions. These findings suggest that theory-of-mind developments impact word learning.

Sobel D.M.&, Corriveau K.H, 2010).

Children monitor individuals' expertise for word learning

Child Development, 81( 2), 669-679.

DOI:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01422.x      URL     PMID:20438467      [本文引用: 1]

Two experiments examined preschoolers' ability to learn novel words using others' expertise about objects' nonobvious properties. In Experiment 1, 4-year-olds ( n = 24) endorsed individuals' labels for objects based on their differing causal knowledge about those objects. Experiment 2 examined the robustness of this inference and its development. Four-year-olds ( n = 40) endorsed labels from confederates who accurately predicted objects' nonobvious internal properties but not nonobvious external properties. Three-year-olds ( n = 40) performed at chance levels in both cases and were less likely to recognize the informants' expertise, suggesting that they might be unable to monitor individuals' expertise. These data suggest that children's ability to learn from testimony is necessary for their understanding of the relevance of an individual's expertise.

Sommer W., Hildebrandt A., Kunina-Habenicht O., Schacht A., & Wilhelm O . ( 2013).

Sex differences in face cognition

Acta Psychologica, 142( 1), 62-73.

DOI:10.1016/j.actpsy.2012.11.001      URL     PMID:23232336      [本文引用: 1]

78 We analyzed the performance of above 800 participants on 7 tasks & 465 face stimuli 78 The measurement structure of face cognition is invariant for female and male 78 Female are better in perceiving and recognizing faces of both sexes 78 There is to more rapid performance decline in face recognition performance of male 78 Daily social activities partly explained sex differences in face cognition

Sperber D., Clément F., Heintz C., Mascaro O., Mercier H., Origgi G., & Wilson D . ( 2010).

Epistemic vigilance

Mind & Language, 25( 4), 359-393.

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TaylorM. M.G . ( 2013).

Gender influences on children’s selective trust of adult testimony

Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 115( 4), 672-690.

DOI:10.1016/j.jecp.2013.04.003      URL     PMID:23708732      [本文引用: 2]

Do children tend to trust same-sex adults when learning new information? A sample of 325 4- to 7-year-olds completed two tasks. The testimony task pitted previous reliability against the sex of the informant. Children first viewed clips of a man and a woman naming familiar objects (neutral, feminine, or masculine) to establish prior accuracy. They then decided (a) whom to ask for help in naming novel objects, (b) whose label to choose, and (c) who was better at answering questions. Children also completed measures of personal sex typing and stereotyped attitudes toward others. For all testimony measures, children responded based on prior accuracy when only one adult (same sex or other sex) was reliable. They were above chance in favoring the same-sex informant when both adults were equally reliable/unreliable for ask and choice questions. The more sex-typed girls were, the more likely they were to favor the female informant testimony even when she was unreliable or equally reliable. There were no correlations for boys. Object type in the learning context had no effect. Overall, children have a subtle but significant preference to learn new information from a same-sex adult when both adults are equally reliable/unreliable. Findings are discussed in terms of in-group favoritism.

Todorov A. ( 2008).

Evaluating faces on trustworthiness: An extension of systems for recognition of emotions signaling approach/avoidance behaviors

Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1124( 1), 208-224.

DOI:10.1196/annals.1440.012      URL     [本文引用: 2]

http://doi.wiley.com/10.1196/annals.1440.012

Todorov A., Pakrashi M., & Oosterhof N. N . ( 2009).

Evaluating faces on trustworthiness after minimal time exposure

Social Cognition, 27( 6), 813-833.

DOI:10.1521/soco.2009.27.6.813      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Vanderbilt K. E., Liu D., & Heyman G. D . ( 2011).

The development of distrust

Child Development, 82( 5), 1372-1380.

DOI:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01629.x      URL     [本文引用: 2]

Wang Y. ( 2012).

The developmental mechanism of 3 to 5 years old children’s selective trust ability

( Unpublished Master degree thesis). Shenyang Normal University.

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[ 王颖 . ( 2012).

3-5岁幼儿选择性信任能力的发展机制(硕士论文)

沈阳师范大学.]

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Wang Y. Q., Yao P. F., & Zhou G. M . ( 2015).

The influence of facial attractiveness and personality labels on men and women’s mate preference

Acta Psychologica Sinica, 47( 1), 108-118.

[本文引用: 1]

[ 王雨晴, 姚鹏飞, 周国梅 . ( 2015).

面孔吸引力、人格标签对于男女择偶偏好的影响

心理学报, 47( 1), 108-118.]

DOI:10.3724/SP.J.1041.2015.00108      URL     [本文引用: 1]

通过对征婚启事、婚姻统计资料等的分析发现相貌、身材对于男性择偶重要,能力、资源和个性等对于女性择偶重要。本研究运用实验法进一步探讨了面孔吸引力、人格标签及其交互对于大学生理想择偶偏好的影响。研究结果表明:(1)对于漂亮异性,男性与其成为情侣的意愿显著高于女性;而对于不漂亮的异性,男性与其成为情侣的意愿明显低于女性。(2)对于积极词汇标签下的异性,女性与其成为情侣的意愿显著高于男性;而对于消极词汇标签下的异性,女性与其成为情侣的意愿显著低于男性。(3)与消极词汇标签比较,积极词汇标签使被试更愿意与其成为情侣,但这种意愿的提高在相对漂亮的面孔上表现得更加明显。(4)大五人格的五个维度对择偶意愿都有影响,影响力依次为尽责性、随和性、开放性、情绪稳定性和外倾性。女性更喜欢外向的男性,但女性是否外向对男性择偶无影响。研究结果为理解择偶行为的性别差异提供了实验性证据。

Yang L., & Hu Z.Q . ( 2010).

Affect Heuristic in Bayesian Reasoning

Psychological Exploration, 30( 3), 18-21.

[本文引用: 1]

[ 杨莉, 胡竹菁 . ( 2010).

贝叶斯推理中的情感启发式

心理学探新, 30( 3), 18-21.]

DOI:10.3969/j.issn.1003-5184.2010.03.005      URL     [本文引用: 1]

该研究通过事件性质、重要程度和主体相关性对贝叶斯推算、判断的影响,探索了贝叶斯推理中的情绪启发式现象,结果表明:1)在贝叶斯推算中,事件重要程度不同,后验概率值的事件性质的主效应显著性不同,事件性质与主体相关性交互作用的显著性不同,但主体相关性的主效应均为不显著;2)在贝叶斯判断中,事件重要程度不同,事件性质和主体相关性在判断上的效果不同;3)在贝叶斯推理中,情绪启发式致使个体的推断结果具有某种系统化的倾向。

Yuan M., Deng Z., & Ji P . ( 2013).

Children’s social epistemology: Children’s selective trust in informants

Advances in Psychological Science, 21( 3), 480-486.

[本文引用: 1]

[ 袁鸣, 邓铸, 季培 . ( 2013).

儿童社会认识论: 儿童对信息提供者的选择性信任

心理科学进展, 21( 3), 480-486.]

DOI:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2013.00480      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Much of our knowledge is transmitted through what other people tell us. Children from the age of four recognise the differences in how trustworthy people are at providing information. Generally, children use the following cues to evaluate the credibility of the informants and to decide who to trust: familiarity, the informants’ past accuracy, and the feedback from other social agents. In future research, it will be important to investigate children’s selective trust in informants’ testimony in other areas, to manipulate other characteristics of the informants, and to examine the potential cultural variations.

Zhang L.P.& Zhou H. ,( 2011).

Children’s selective trust based on judgments of information: Its relationship with prosocial behavior and decision making

Psychological Development and Education, 27( 1), 71-75.

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[ 张兰萍, 周晖 . ( 2011).

幼儿基于信息判断的选择性信任——与亲社会行为及决策判断的关系

心理发展与教育, 27( 1), 71-75.]

URL     [本文引用: 1]

选择性信任指人们在面对不同信息传达者时,能依据信息的正误区分出他们的可信赖度,从而有选择地相信某些传达者。本研究探讨幼儿选择性信任与亲社会行为及决策判断的关系。研究一以75名3~4岁幼儿为研究对象,采用选择性信任任务与分配糖果任务相结合的模式,探讨亲社会行为与选择性信任的关系,发现3—4岁幼儿在选择性信任形成后,亲社会倾向更多地指向可信赖者。研究二关注选择性信任与幼儿的决策判断的关系,在对72名3~4岁幼儿的研究中发现,在众多颜色糖果的选择中,相对于对照组的均等偏好,实验组的3—4岁幼儿决策判断明显受到可信赖者的影响,即更倾向于选择可信赖者推荐的颜色糖果。

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