ISSN 0439-755X
CN 11-1911/B
主办:中国心理学会
   中国科学院心理研究所
出版:科学出版社

心理学报, 2019, 51(1): 58-70 doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1041.2019.00058

研究报告

个人目标相关性对非临床抑郁者未来想象的影响

胡治国1,2,3,*, 陈静1,2, 吴惠君1,2, GeorgNorthoff1,2,3,4

1 杭州师范大学认知与脑疾病研究中心

2 杭州师范大学心理科学研究院, 杭州 311121

3 浙江省认知障碍评估技术研究重点实验室, 杭州 311121

4 Institute of Mental Health Research, University of Ottawa, Ottawa K1Z7K4, Canada

Future thinking in non-clinical depression: the relevance of personal goals

HU Zhiguo1,2,3,*, CHEN Jing1,2, WU Huijun1,2, Georg Northoff1,2,3,4

1 Center for Cognition and Brain Disorders, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China

2 Institutes of Psychological Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou 311121, China

3 Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Research in Assessment of Cognitive Impairments, Hangzhou 311121, China

4 Institute of Mental Health Research, University of Ottawa, Ottawa K1Z7K4, Canada

通讯作者: 胡治国, E-mail: huzg@hznu.edu.cn

收稿日期: 2017-10-9   网络出版日期: 2019-01-25

基金资助: * 国家自然科学基金面上项目资助.  31271195

Received: 2017-10-9   Online: 2019-01-25

摘要

通过两个实验考查了非临床抑郁者未来想象的异常是否受到个人目标相关性的调节。实验1采用未来想象任务, 实验2采用可能性评估范式, 两个实验一致发现, 抑郁倾向者想象未来积极事件的异常, 受到了与个人目标相关性的调节:相对于非抑郁倾向者, 抑郁倾向者对未来与个人目标相关的积极事件的预期减弱, 而对未来与个人目标无关的积极事件的预期则没有表现出异常; 同时还发现, 抑郁倾向者表现出了对未来消极预期的普遍增强, 不受与个人目标相关性的影响。

关键词: 抑郁 ; 未来想象 ; 个人目标 ; 情绪 ; 可能性评估

Abstract

Future thinking is an important process to psychologically simulate one’s perception of their future. It plays a crucial role in the recovery, persistence and recurrence of depression. Many studies have examined future thinking in depression and found that future thinking is disrupted in depression and is mainly manifested as weakened positive expectations and increased negative expectations for the future. However, the results of the existing studies have not been consistent, which may be due to the fact that ‘self’ in the future events have not been considered in previous research. In the present study, two experiments were conducted to investigate whether the abnormalities of future thinking in non-clinical depression can be modulated by the self in relation to the relevance of personal goals. For this purpose, the present study focused on comparing four different kinds of future events: future positive events either related or unrelated to personal goals, and future negative events either related or unrelated to personal goals.
In Experiment 1, the future thinking task (FTT) was utilized; 23 non-clinical depressive subjects (whose BDI score was higher than or equal to 14) and 25 non-depressive subjects (whose BDI score was not higher than 4) were enrolled. The subjects were required to think about positive and negative future events that could happen to them in the next ten years, either related to or unrelated to their personal goals. After the FTT task, the subjects were asked to evaluate the likelihood that the events would occur to them in the future based on a 50-point Likert scale (1: not at all likely to occur, 50: extremely likely to occur). In Experiment 2, the likelihood estimation measure (LEM) paradigm was used, in which the four types of events were produced according to the interview with the participants before the formal experiment, and the subjects were instructed to evaluate the likelihood that the given events would occur to them in the future based on a 50-point Likert scale as in Experiment 1.
Results of Experiment 1: The results of Experiment 1 showed that the depressive group imagined fewer positive events related to personal goals compared with the non-depressive group. In contrast, there were no significant differences between the two groups in the imagination of the other three types of events. Additionally, the depressive group (in contrast to the non-depressive group) considered that the positive events related to personal goals were less likely to happen to them, whereas negative events related to personal events were more likely to happen to them. This difference was restricted to events related to personal goals, as we did not observe a significant difference between the two groups in evaluating the likelihood of positive and negative events that were unrelated to personal goals. Results of Experiment 2: The results of Experiment 2 showed that the depressive group (in contrast to the non-depressive group) perceived the personal goal-related positive events to be less likely to occur to them. When assessing the likelihood of the negative events presented, the depression group (as opposed to the non-depression group) considered these events to be more likely to happen to them, whether the events were related to the personal goals or not.
Taken together, the results of the current study demonstrated that (1) the abnormality in future thinking of positive events in non-clinical depressive individuals appears to be modulated by the relevance of the personal goals, and (2) the non-clinical depressive individuals showed an abnormal increased in future expectancy of negative events, regardless of whether personal goals were involved. In conclusion, our data demonstrate a deficit in the future thinking of positive events specifically related to personal goals in non-clinical depression. Our study thus shows that the relevance of personal goals is an important factor when investigating future thinking in depression.

Keywords: depression ; future thinking ; personal goal ; emotion ; likelihood estimation

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本文引用格式

胡治国, 陈静, 吴惠君, GeorgNorthoff. 个人目标相关性对非临床抑郁者未来想象的影响. 心理学报[J], 2019, 51(1): 58-70 doi:10.3724/SP.J.1041.2019.00058

HU Zhiguo, CHEN Jing, WU Huijun, Georg Northoff. Future thinking in non-clinical depression: the relevance of personal goals. Acta Psychologica Sinica[J], 2019, 51(1): 58-70 doi:10.3724/SP.J.1041.2019.00058

1 前言

未来想象(future thinking)是人类的一种重要的心理模拟能力, 对于个体维持心理健康和正常功能至关重要(Macleod, 2017)。与通常认为人类的行为由过去经验驱动不同, Seligman, Railton, Baumeister和Sripada (2013)认为, 过去经验对行为的影响, 并不是通过直接塑造行为, 而是通过为可能的未来提供信息; 对可能未来的表征是知觉、认知、情感、记忆、动机和行动的核心组织特征。

感知、预期未来的能力, 以及解释未来的能力, 在抑郁症的恢复、持续和复发过程中起着重要的作用(Macleod & Moore, 2000)。抑郁症患者通常对他们自己的未来持有消极的看法(Bjärehed, Sarkohi, & Andersson, 2010), 一些关于抑郁的模型都强调了这一点, 如抑郁的认知模型认为, 抑郁者的显著特点是对自己、对世界、对未来的消极预期(Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery, 1979); 抑郁的绝望理论认为, 对未来的绝望是导致抑郁(至少对某些类型)的最核心原因(Abramson, Metalsky, & Alloy, 1989)。对未来的消极预期与抑郁者中广泛存在的绝望感密切相关, 而绝望感又往往伴随着很高的自杀风险。因此, 探索抑郁者未来想象的异常, 对于揭示其发病原因和预防自杀风险都具有重要意义。

很多研究考查了抑郁者的未来想象, 发现抑郁者未来想象的异常主要表现为对未来的积极预期的减弱和对未来消极预期的增强, 但现有研究得到的结果并不完全一致。

很多研究发现, 抑郁者在对未来进行想象时会表现出对未来积极预期的减弱。如Bjärehed等(2010)以轻度到中度抑郁症患者为被试, 要求他们完成未来想象任务(future thinking task, FTT) (MacLeod, Rose, & Williams, 1993), 在该任务中, 被试需在给定的一分钟时间内尽可能多地想出在特定时间范围内期待发生的积极事件或者不希望发生的消极事件。随后让被试对自己想象出的事件进行可能性和情绪价评估。结果发现, 想象近期(0~1年)未来事件时, 抑郁症患者相比于健康控制组报告了更少的未来积极事件, 并对这些积极事件给予了更低的情绪价评分; 但在报告的未来消极事件数目上与控制组没有显著差异, 评分也无显著差异。MacLeod和Salaminiou (2001)仅让抑郁症患者和健康控制组想象未来的积极事件, 并对事件进行愉悦度评估。结果同样发现, 抑郁症患者比控制组想象出了更少的积极事件, 而且他们对这些事件发生在自己身上时的愉悦度评分也更低; 同时还发现, 减少的积极事件预期与被试的抑郁程度显著相关。MacLeod, Pankhania和Mitchell (1997)的一项研究, 采用FTT范式考查了抑郁和非抑郁的准自杀者(parasuicide, 指有过故意自伤行为的人)的未来想象, 发现两类准自杀行为者同样表现出了未来积极预期的减少, 但没有发现未来消极预期的增加。该结果得到了MacLeod等(1998)另一项研究的证实。Sarkohi (2011)采用FTT的研究也发现, 抑郁症患者相对于健康控制组, 表现出了积极预期的减弱, 但没有发现消极预期的增强。Kosnes, Whelan, O’Donovan和McHugh (2013)的研究还发现, 亚临床(sub-clinically)的抑郁被试(相对于健康控制组)不仅在外显FTT任务中, 而且在内隐FTT任务中, 均表现出了积极未来预期的减弱。

其他一些研究还发现, 抑郁者对未来想象的异常表现为消极预期的增强。如MacLeod和Cropley (1995)采用可能性评估方法(likelihood estimation measure, LEM), 发现非临床抑郁倾向组(在贝克抑郁量表中的得分大于等于14)比控制组被试认为消极事件发生在自己身上的可能性更高, 但在积极事件的可能性上两组没有差异。而且, 该研究还发现, 相对于控制组, 抑郁倾向组提供未来消极事件的具体例子所需的反应时间显著快于积极事件。Miles, MacLeod和Pote (2004)采用FTT范式的研究也发现, 非临床抑郁倾向组的青少年相对于控制组, 在想象未来时报告了更多的消极事件, 但在积极事件上没有显著差异。Strunk, Lopez和DeRubeis (2006)让具有不同程度抑郁症状的人预测未来30天内40件事情发生的可能性, 结果发现, 抑郁症状严重(相比于症状轻微)的被试表现出了明显的悲观主义倾向。还有研究发现, 抑郁症患者不仅倾向于预期消极未来事件的产生, 并且倾向于相信未来发生的事情会产生消极的结果(Hoerger, Quirk, Chapman, & Duberstein, 2012; Miranda & Mennin, 2007)。Korn, Sharot, Walter, Heekeren和Dolan (2014)的一项研究也发现, 抑郁症患者比健康控制组认为未来负性生活事件(如“得癌症”)更有可能发生在自己身上。而且, 当向被试呈现负性事件发生的平均概率时, 控制组被试会朝着有利于自己的方向调整自己原先的估计(如平均概率低于自己最初的估计, 则再次估计时被试会调低可能性), 但抑郁症患者中则没有发现这种乐观偏向的更新模式, 而且症状越严重的抑郁症患者其更新模式越悲观。还有一项研究(Andersson, Sarkohi, Karlsson, Bjärehed, & Hesser, 2013)发现, 在经过基于网络的认知行为干预后, 抑郁症患者在FTT任务中的消极事件分数显著降低了, 而且FTT分数的降低与抑郁症状的减轻程度显著相关, 这也从另一个侧面说明了抑郁症患者在消极预期方面存在异常。

上述两种未来想象的异常—对积极预期的减弱和对消极预期的增强, 也可以在抑郁者中同时出现。如MacLeod, Tata, Kentish, Carroll和Hunter (1997)采用LEM范式, 发现抑郁症患者(相对于健康控制组)认为消极事件更可能发生, 积极事件更不可能发生, 而且抑郁症患者给出了更多消极事件更可能发生的理由, 以及更多的积极事件不可能发生的理由。抑郁症患者在FTT任务中, 有时既表现出更多的消极未来想象, 又表现出更少的积极未来想象(MacLeod & Byrne, 1996; MacLeod, Tata, Kentish, & Jacobsen, 1997); 他们将可能发生的最坏事情评估为更可能发生, 而把可能发生的最好事情评估为更不可能发生(Beck, Wenzel, Riskind, Brown, & Steer, 2006)。Thimm, Holte, Brennen和Wang (2013)采用不切实际乐观量表(Unrealistic Optimism Scale, UOS), 要求临床抑郁症患者、有抑郁症历史者和健康被试估计特定的积极和消极事件发生在他们身上的概率(0~100%), 结果发现, 临床抑郁组比其他两组, 认为他们经历积极事件的可能性更低, 经历消极事件的可能性更高。Szőllősi, Pajkossy和Racsmány (2015)采用线索想象范式的研究也为此提供了支持, 研究中首先给被试呈现一个积极、消极或中性的线索词(如高兴、悲伤或面包), 然后要求被试想象未来与给定的线索词对应的一个场景, 并对该场景进行一系列的后续评定。结果发现, 被试的抑郁分数越高, 想象的积极事件的表现特征(phenomenal characteristics, 如生动性(得分越低代表越不具体)、情绪感受(得分越低代表越消极)等)上的得分就越低, 在想象消极事件时的模式则相反。

还有个别研究发现, 抑郁症患者对积极预期和消极预期都减弱了。如一项fMRI研究(Feeser et al., 2013)发现, 相对于健康控制组, 未服药的抑郁症患者对积极情绪图片的预期, 左外侧前额叶(BA44)的激活减弱了; 对消极情绪图片的预期, 在右侧眶额外侧(BA47)表现出了减弱。

上述研究表明, 抑郁者在未来想象中确实存在着明显的异常, 但不同的研究却发现了不同的异常现象, 有的是单一的积极减弱(Bjärehed et al., 2010; Kosnes et al., 2013; MacLeod et al., 1993; MacLeod, Pankhania, & Mitchell, 1997; MacLeod & Salaminiou, 2001; Sarkohi, 2011), 有的是单一的消极增强(Hoerger et al., 2012; Korn et al., 2014; Miles et al., 2004; Miranda & Mennin, 2007; Strunk et al., 2006), 还有的是两者兼而有之(Beck et al., 2006; MacLeod & Byrne, 1996; MacLeod et al., 1997; MacLeod et al., 1997; Pyszczynski, Holt, & Greenberg, 1987; Szőllősi et al., 2015; Thimm et al., 2013; 参见综述 Roepke & Seligman, 2016), 更有个别研究发现了两者均减弱(Feeser et al., 2013)。究其原因, 可能是由于上述研究均未对未来事件进行严格的控制。

想象未来与自我因素有着密切的联系(Rasmussen & Berntsen, 2014)。在MacLeod和Conway (2007)的一项研究中, 采用经典的FTT范式, 要求被试在一分钟内想象出尽可能多的他们希望未来发生的积极事件(自我条件), 然后以他人视角做同样的任务, 即他们认为参加同样实验的其他人在面对这个任务时会产生的积极事件(他人条件)。实验1的结果发现, 健康被试的主观幸福感(subjective well-being)和心理幸福感(psychological well-being)与自我相关的未来积极想象能力呈显著正相关, 但与他人未来的积极想象能力不相关; 其实验2进一步对比了准自杀组和健康控制组, 发现准自杀组(相对于控制组)表现出了显著的自我相关的积极未来想象能力的降低, 但在他人相关的未来想象中两组没有表现出显著差异。该研究的一个重要启示是, 积极未来想象受到“自我”这一因素的影响。未来想象的一个重要功能就是去精确构建或模拟目标相关信息的细节表征(D'Argembeau, 2015), 因此个人目标(personal goal)加工是未来想象的一个关键因素, 在未来想象涉及到的不同认知过程中, 个人目标加工可能对于形成未来事件的心理表征具有特别重要的作用(Stawarczyk & D'Argembeau, 2015), 未来想象会被个人目标和动机强烈影响(Christian, Miles, Fung, Best, & Macrae, 2013)。采用健康被试的一项fMRI研究(D'Argembeau et al., 2010)证实, 想象未来与个人目标相关的事件和与个人目标无关的事件, 会诱发大脑不同的神经活动, 其中腹内侧前额叶(ventral medial prefrontal cortex)参与了未来想象中对个人目标相关信息的编码。Bouwman (2016)的研究还发现, 抑郁症患者的抑郁严重程度与其在一分钟内产生的不同类型的积极未来目标有关:产生与工作/教育相关的积极未来目标越多, 则抑郁程度越低; 相反, 在情绪相关积极目标方面越多, 则抑郁程度越高。最近的一项研究也发现, 个体在日常生活中期待的情绪的强度, 与其对个人的重要性有关(Barsics, Van der Linden, & D'Argembeau, 2016)。上述研究结果都强烈提示, 抑郁人群想象未来的异常可能与个人目标密切相关。

基于上述分析, 本研究将个人目标相关性这个因素纳入非临床抑郁倾向者的未来想象研究之中。分别采用上面介绍的两种经典的未来想象任务—FTT范式和LEM范式, 通过两个实验, 考查非临床的抑郁倾向者和非抑郁倾向者在想象未来与个人目标相关和无关事件时的差异。我们预期, 抑郁倾向者对未来积极预期的减弱和对未来消极预期的增强, 仅表现在与个人目标相关的事件上; 而对与个人目标无关的未来事件的想象, 则不会表现出与非抑郁倾向者的显著差异。

2 实验1:采用FTT范式的未来想象实验

本实验采用未来想象任务(FTT), 考查有抑郁倾向和没有抑郁倾向的被试, 在规定时间内想象出的与个人目标相关和无关的积极和消极未来事件的差异。我们预期, 抑郁倾向组相对于非抑郁倾向组, 会想象出更少的与个人目标相关的积极未来事件, 想象出更多的与个人目标相关的消极未来事件, 但在与个人目标无关的积极和消极未来事件上则不会表现出显著差异。

2.1 被试

被试为两组在校大学生, 一组为非临床的抑郁倾向组(以下简称“抑郁组”), 另一组为非抑郁倾向组(以下简称“非抑郁组”)。参照Pyszczynski等(1987)MacLeod和Cropley (1995)等研究中的标准, 抑郁组的入组标准为在贝克抑郁量表(Beck depression inventory, BDI, 21项版本)上总分大于等于14分的被试, 非抑郁组的入组标准为BDI量表总分小于等于4分的被试。

本实验共包括抑郁组被试23名(女性16人, 平均年龄21.0 ± 1.6岁), 非抑郁组被试25名(女性14人, 平均年龄20.9 ± 1.4岁)。抑郁组的BDI总分(19.4 ± 5.2)和非抑郁组的BDI总分(2.7 ± 1.1)差异显著, t (46) = 15.66, p < 0.001, d = 4.44。两组被试在年龄和受教育程度上差异不显著(ps > 0.05)。所有被试均为右利手, 视力或矫正视力正常。所有被试均在实验前签署了书面的知情同意书, 实验后获得适量报酬。

2.2 实验材料

实验材料为被试按照要求生成的未来想象事件, 共包括四种类型, 分别为与个人目标相关的积极事件(如“两年后, 在心仪的单位得到工作机会”)、与个人目标无关的积极事件(如“六年后, 与朋友在迪士尼疯玩了一整天”)、与个人目标相关的消极事件(如“七年后, 与生活多年的老婆离婚了”)和与个人目标无关的消极事件(如“五年后, 参观一个画展结果大失所望”)。这里个人目标是指人生中对个人很重要的、自己会为了实现它而努力奋斗的目标, 可以包括学业、工作、家庭、亲密关系、物质享受、休闲活动等各个方面(D'Argembeau et al., 2010)。

2.3 实验设计与实验程序

本实验为2(组别:抑郁组, 非抑郁组) × 2(事件的情绪价:积极, 消极) × 2(个人目标相关性:相关, 无关)三因素混合设计。其中, 组别为被试间因素, 事件的情绪价和个人目标相关性为被试内因素。

实验在一个安静的实验室中进行, 包括如下三个阶段:

(1)第一阶段:控制任务

被试首先要完成一项控制任务, 该任务为口语词汇联想测试(oral word association test), 这是一个标准的言语流畅性测试, 主要考查被试的心理灵活性和执行功能。本实验中的测试根据文献(陆爱桃, 张积家, 莫雷, 2008)中的语义流畅性任务改进而来, 要求被试在一分钟内尽可能多的说出食物、动物或著名人物的名字(三种类别分开进行)。说出一个计1分, 重复或类别错误不计分。该任务既作为一个控制任务, 也为接下来的未来想象任务进行热身和练习。

(2)第二阶段:未来想象任务

首先, 由主试向被试口头详细解释了个人目标的含义, 并给出了四类事件的具体例子, 回答了被试的疑问。在确保被试完全明白实验的要求后, 请被试在一分钟的时间内尽可能多的说出未来10年内可能会发生在自己身上的某类事件, 四类事件的先后顺序进行了拉丁方平衡。主试用录音设备记录下被试说出的事件, 事后经确认符合给定类别的要求后记为有效事件, 每个有效事件计1分, 错误或重复事件不计分。被试在进行不同类别事件的想象中间可以进行短暂休息。

(3)第三阶段:后测任务

为了对未来想象任务中得到的事件的类型进行确认和精细评估, 在主任务后进行了后测。主试首先将未来想象任务中被试说出的事件转录为相应的文字, 然后输入E-Prime程序中呈现给被试。被试需要在Likert量表上完成如下评估任务:(1)未来事件发生在自己身上的可能性(1:完全不可能, 50:有极大的可能); (2)事件与被试个人目标的相关性(1:不相关, 50:高度相关); (3)事件如果未来发生在自己身上时可能的情绪反应(-50:非常消极, 50:非常积极)。上述三类评估任务分开进行, 顺序在被试间进行了拉丁方平衡。在每种评估任务中, 四种类型的事件随机呈现。正式评估前有一个简短的练习阶段(练习事件与被试自己产生的事件无关), 以便被试熟悉评估流程。

2.4 实验结果

首先对控制任务的结果进行了分析。在控制任务中, 两组被试在产生食物的个数(抑郁组:20.7 ± 5.6, 非抑郁组:23.6 ± 7.6)、动物的个数(抑郁组:21.5 ± 4.5, 非抑郁组:24.0 ± 5.8)、著名人物的个数(抑郁组:17.4 ± 6.4, 非抑郁组:18.6 ± 5.7), 以及产生三种类别名词的平均数(抑郁组:19.9 ± 3.9, 非抑郁组:22.1 ± 4.9)上均没有显著差异(ps > 0.05)。该结果表明, 抑郁组和非抑郁组被试的语义联想能力是没有显著差异的。这也意味着, 随后的未来想象任务中的差异不是由于两组被试的语言相关能力的差异导致的。

接着, 计算抑郁组和非抑郁组被试在未来想象任务中想象到的四种未来事件的个数, 并分别统计两组被试对四种未来事件的三种评估分数。这三种评估分数, 如果被试的反应超过了给定范围([1, 50]或[-50, 50])或有错误按键, 则剔除该数据。最后得到未来事件想象的个数和评估分数的平均数和标准差见表1

表1   被试想象到的未来事件的个数及事件评估的结果

事件类型抑郁组
(N = 23)
非抑郁组
(N = 25)
p
与个人目标相关的积极事件
想象的个数5.4 (1.9)6.7 (2.1)0.036
发生的可能性32.5 (8.1)40.4 (6.1)0.000
与个人目标的相关性42.9 (7.2)43.8 (7.1)0.685
可能的情绪反应37.4 (16.4)40.3 (9.3)0.450
与个人目标相关的消极事件
想象的个数4.9 (1.7)5.1 (2.5)0.789
发生的可能性27.0 (8.7)21.5 (8.8)0.036
与个人目标的相关性41.0 (8.0)39.4 (9.9)0.525
可能的情绪反应-25.4 (21.4)-29.1 (21.4)0.445
与个人目标无关的积极事件
想象的个数5.3 (2.1)5.4 (1.9)0.867
发生的可能性34.4 (9.0)36.0 (9.6)0.560
与个人目标的相关性18.9 (11.3)19.8 (14.1)0.802
可能的情绪反应24.6 (13.0)22.9 (11.9)0.639
与个人目标无关的消极事件
想象的个数5.0 (2.3)5.0 (2.0)0.996
发生的可能性28.2 (9.8)25.8 (9.9)0.404
与个人目标的相关性14.8 (10.6)18.6 (15.2)0.317
可能的情绪反应-16.0 (12.1)-11.4 (10.1)0.154

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2.4.1 未来想象任务结果

对未来想象任务的结果, 即想象的每类事件的个数, 进行了2(组别:抑郁组, 非抑郁组)×2(情绪价:积极, 消极)×2(个人目标相关性:相关, 无关)的三因素混合方差分析, 结果发现:情绪价的主效应显著(F (1, 46) = 17.05, p < 0.001, ƞ2 = 0.27), 组别(F (1, 46) = 0.70, p = 0.408)和个人目标相关性(F (1, 46) = 1.70, p = 0.199)的主效应不显著, 情绪价和组别的交互作用不显著(F (1, 46) = 2.76, p = 0.103), 情绪价和个人目标相关性的交互作用边缘显著(F (1, 46) = 2.85, p = 0.098, ƞ2 = 0.06), 其余两阶及三阶交互作用均不显著(ps > 0.05)。

为了直接对比两组被试想象四类事件的个数是否有显著差异, 采用双样本t检验进行了进一步分析。结果发现, 两组被试想象与个人目标相关的积极事件时有显著差异(t(46) = -2.16, p < 0.05, d = -0.62), 而在想象与个人目标无关的积极事件、与个人目标相关和无关的消极事件时均没有显著差异(ps > 0.05), 如图1所示。

图1

图1   抑郁组和非抑郁组想象到的不同类型未来事件的个数

注:PP代表与个人目标相关的积极事件(personal goal-related positive); PN代表与个人目标相关的消极事件(personal goal-related negative); unPP代表与个人目标无关的积极事件(personal goal-unrelated positive); unPN代表与个人目标无关的消极事件(personal goal-unrelated negative)。* p < 0.05。


2.4.2 未来想象事件的评估结果

对想象到的未来事件的可能性评估结果, 进行了2(组别:抑郁组, 非抑郁组)×2(情绪价:积极, 消极)×2(个人目标相关性:相关, 无关)的三因素混合方差分析。结果发现, 情绪价的主效应显著(F(1, 46) = 46.33, p < 0.001, ƞ2 = 0.50), 组别(F(1, 46) = 0.07, p = 0.709)和个人目标相关性(F(1, 46) = 0.63, p = 0.431)的主效应不显著, 情绪价和组别的交互作用显著(F(1, 46) = 8.28, p < 0.01, ƞ2 = 0.15), 个人目标相关性和组别的交互作用不显著(F(1, 46) = 0.73, p = 0.398), 情绪价和个人目标相关性的交互作用边缘显著(F(1, 46) = 3.51, p = 0.067, ƞ2 = 0.07), 情绪价、个人目标相关性和组别的交互作用显著(F(1, 46) = 4.81, p < 0.05, ƞ2 = 0.10)。

为了直接对比两组被试对四类事件未来发生的可能性评估是否有显著差异, 采用双样本t检验进行了进一步分析。结果发现, 两组被试对与个人目标相关的积极事件发生在自己身上的可能性评估有显著差异(t (46) = -3.81, p < 0.001, d = -1.10), 对与个人目标相关的消极事件发生在自己身上的可能性评估有显著差异(t (46) = 2.16, p < 0.05, d = 0.62); 两组被试对与个人目标无关的积极和消极事件发生在自己身上的可能性评估都没有显著差异(ps > 0.05), 如图2所示。该结果表明, 相比于非抑郁者, 抑郁倾向者认为想象到的与个人目标相关的未来积极事件更不可能发生在自己身上, 而与个人目标相关的未来消极事件更可能发生, 这与我们的预期是完全一致的。

图2

图2   抑郁组和非抑郁组对想象到的未来事件发生可能性评估的直接对比

注: * p < 0.05, *** p < 0.001。


对想象到的未来事件与个人目标的相关性评估结果, 进行了2(组别:抑郁组, 非抑郁组)×2(情绪价:积极, 消极)×2(个人目标相关性:相关, 无关)的三因素混合方差分析。结果发现, 情绪价(F (1, 46) = 9.10, p < 0.01, ƞ2 = 0.15)和个人目标相关性(F (1, 46) = 145.20, p < 0.001, ƞ2 = 0.76)的主效应显著, 组别的主效应不显著(F (1, 46) = 0.22, p = 0.638), 所有交互作用均不显著(ps > 0.05)。个人目标相关性的主效应, 表明与个人目标相关的事件在后测中的个人目标相关性中的得分, 确实显著大于与个人目标无关的事件, 从数据上验证了我们的实验设计。情绪的主效应显著表明, 被试倾向于评定积极事件(相比于消极事件)与个人的目标相关性更高, 反映了被试的一种积极偏向。对个人目标相关性程度的评估, 组别的主效应不显著, 也没有发现另外两个因素与组别的交互作用, 表明两组被试在这个指标上的反应类似。

对想象到的未来事件的情绪反应的评估结果, 进行了2(组别:抑郁组, 非抑郁组)×2(情绪价:积极, 消极)×2(个人目标相关性:相关, 无关)的三因素混合方差分析。结果发现, 情绪价的主效应显著(F(1, 46) = 387.79, p < 0.001, ƞ2 = 0.89), 组别(F(1, 46)= 0.16, p = 0.696)和个人目标相关性(F(1, 46) = 0.41, p = 0.525)的主效应不显著, 情绪价和个人目标相关性的交互作用显著(F(1, 46) = 39.79, p < 0.001, ƞ2 = 0.46), 其余交互作用均不显著(ps > 0.05)。该结果表明, 积极事件在情绪感受方面的得分, 显著大于消极事件, 从数据上验证了我们的实验设计。对可能的情绪反应的评估, 组别的主效应不显著, 也没有发现另外两个因素与组别的交互作用, 表明两组被试在这个指标上的反应类似。

2.5 讨论

本实验采用未来想象任务(FTT), 对比了抑郁组和非抑郁组被试在给定时间内想象到的未来不同事件的个数。从想象出的四类事件的数量上可以发现, 相比于非抑郁组, 抑郁组被试想象出了更少的与个人目标相关的未来积极事件, 两组被试在其他三类事件的想象上没有显著差异。从对四类事件的可能性评估分数上可以看到, 相比于非抑郁组, 抑郁组被试认为未来与个人目标相关的积极事件发生在自己身上的可能性更低, 与个人目标相关的消极事件发生在自己身上的可能性更高; 两组在与个人目标无关的积极和消极事件的可能性评估上则没有显著差异。上述结果表明, 抑郁倾向者(相比于非抑郁倾向者)对积极未来想象的不足和对消极未来想象的增强, 均受到了个人目标相关性的调节。

本实验发现, 在与个人目标相关的事件上, 抑郁倾向者既表现出了积极预期的减弱, 也同时表现出了消极预期的增强, 这与我们的假设是一致的, 也验证了前人的研究结果(Beck et al., 2006; MacLeod & Byrne, 1996; MacLeod et al., 1997; MacLeod et al., 1997; Szőllősi et al., 2015; Thimm et al., 2013)。同时, 我们的研究也发现, 在与个人目标无关的事件上, 抑郁倾向者既没有表现出积极预期的减弱, 也没有表现出消极预期的增强, 这也符合我们的假设, 与一些没有发现积极减弱(Hoerger et al., 2012; Korn et al., 2014; Miles et al., 2004; Miranda & Mennin, 2007; Strunk et al., 2006)或消极增强(Bjärehed et al., 2010; Kosnes et al., 2013; MacLeod et al., 1993; MacLeod et al., 1997; MacLeod & Salaminiou, 2001; Sarkohi, 2011)的研究结果也是一致的。本实验的结果表明, 已往研究结果的分歧, 很可能是因为忽视了与自我的相关性这个重要的因素。

在本实验中, 虽然在后测的可能性评估中, 抑郁组(相对于非抑郁组)表现出了与个人目标相关的未来消极预期的增强, 但在未来想象任务(FTT)的想象个数指标上, 却没有发现两组的显著差异, 这可能与FTT任务的特性有关。FTT是一个限时任务, 考查被试在给定时间内想象到的事件的数目, 本实验中被试在一分钟内能想象到相关事件的个数为4~7个, 数据变化范围比较小, 可能导致该指标不够敏感, 从而没有发现两组被试在想象未来消极事件时的差异。为弥补实验1的这一不足之处, 实验2采用更加敏感的可能性评估(LEM)范式继续进行了考查。该范式通过访谈的方法事先得到四类事件, 排除了实验1可能混杂的时间紧迫以及想象能力等因素的干扰。

3 实验2:采用LEM范式的未来想象实验

实验2采用可能性评估(LEM)范式, 考查两组被试在评估未来事件发生的可能性上的差异。我们预期, 抑郁组相对于非抑郁组, 评估与个人目标相关的未来积极事件发生在自己身上的可能性更低, 与个人目标相关的未来消极事件发生的可能性更高, 而在评估与个人目标无关的积极和消极事件发生的可能性上, 则不会表现出显著差异。

3.1 被试

本实验同样包括两组被试:抑郁组和非抑郁组, 入组标准同实验1。抑郁组包括27名被试(女性17人, 平均年龄20.9 ± 1.9岁), 非抑郁组包括29名被试(女性20人, 平均年龄20.0 ± 1.7岁)。抑郁组的BDI总分(20.2 ± 6.2)和非抑郁组的BDI总分(2.7 ± 1.4)差异显著, t(54) = 14.96, p < 0.001, d = 3.89。两组被试在年龄和受教育程度上不存在显著差异(ps > 0.05)。本实验的被试均没有参加过实验1。

3.2 实验材料

本实验的材料包括80个描述不同类型事件的句子。这些材料由主试对入组的被试进行单独访谈后获得。访谈过程如下:首先让被试写出10个自己会为之努力的人生目标, 这些人生目标的时间限定在10年内。随后, 要求被试对自己写出的每一个人生目标, 想象出一个或几个相关的特定的积极和消极事件, 给出该事件可能发生的大致时间(10年内), 并且能够生动想象出这些事件发生的环境、出现的人物以及该事件发生的细节等。主试根据访谈得到的这些事件线索, 分别编写出与被试的个人目标相关的20个积极事件和20个消极事件(比如, 被试的个人目标为“找到好的工作”, 编写的相应积极事件为“两年后找到一份高薪的工作, 迫不及待地把喜讯告诉爸妈”, 消极事件为“两年后, 没有找到合适的工作, 毕业时黯然失业了”)。

在编制与个人目标无关的未来积极事件和消极事件时, 首先给被试呈现事先准备好的、与通常的个人目标无关的事件列表, 让被试从给定的事件列表中分别选出与其人生目标无关的未来10年内可能发生的20个积极事件和20个消极事件, 要求被试对选中的事件能够生动地进行想象, 被试也可以根据自己的具体情况给出另外的与个人目标无关的事件(比如, 积极事件为“两年后在电影院看了一场非常棒的电影”, 消极事件为“两年后看电影时被后座情侣聊天吵得完全听不清台词”)。

3.3 实验设计与实验程序

本实验为2(组别:抑郁组, 非抑郁组) × 2(事件的情绪价:积极, 消极) × 2(个人目标相关性:相关, 无关)三因素混合设计。其中, 组别为被试间因素, 事件的情绪价和个人目标相关性为被试内因素。

访谈得到实验材料后, 利用E-Prime程序将事件随机呈现给被试, 要求被试判断给定的事件将来发生在自己身上的可能性。完成可能性评估任务后, 被试还需要完成2个后测任务, 分别是给定事件与个人目标的相关性和事件可能带来的情绪反应, 流程与实验1相同, 两个后测任务的顺序在被试间进行了平衡。

虽然在实验1的FTT范式中也包括对事件可能性的评估, 但LEM范式与FTT范式有明显区别。FTT范式的主任务是考查被试在一分钟内主动产生相关未来事件的能力, 可能受到被试的想象能力、语言产生能力等的影响。而且, 在该范式中, 可能性评估只是对产生的事件的追加测试, 针对的是上述产生的特定事件, 以提供进一步的补充信息。在LEM范式中, 事件是根据给定的线索提前访谈后得到的, 要求被试对这些事件未来发生在自己身上的可能性进行评估, 这里的可能性评估是主任务, 该范式涵盖的事件范围也更加全面, 因此可能比FTT范式更加敏感。

3.4 实验结果

采用与实验1中相同的方法对数据进行了处理和统计, 得到了两组被试的结果:可能性评估任务中的分数、与个人目标的相关性程度和情绪感受, 见表2

表2   未来事件的可能性、与个人目标的相关性和情绪反应的评估结果

事件类型抑郁组
(N = 27)
非抑郁组
(N = 29)
p
与个人目标相关的积极事件
发生的可能性35.0 (7.6)39.8 (5.3)0.007
与个人目标的相关性40.3 (8.3)43.2 (5.2)0.121
可能的情绪反应42.0 (7.6)43.8 (6.7)0.357
与个人目标相关的消极事件
发生的可能性26.1 (6.9)16.2 (4.7)0.000
与个人目标的相关性32.3 (10.7)36.8 (10.8)0.128
可能的情绪反应-24.7 (9.8)-25.3 (10.7)0.823
与个人目标无关的积极事件
发生的可能性33.3 (6.7)33.8 (6.8)0.774
与个人目标的相关性22.0 (9.9)21.4 (9.8)0.815
可能的情绪反应26.4 (8.8)25.2 (8.6)0.593
与个人目标无关的消极事件
发生的可能性28.1 (6.0)22.2 (6.0)0.001
与个人目标的相关性17.9 (9.1)18.2 (7.6)0.904
可能的情绪反应-12.4 (7.2)-10.8 (7.7)0.428

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3.4.1 可能性评估的结果

对可能性评估结果进行了2(组别:抑郁组, 非抑郁组)×2(情绪价:积极, 消极)×2(个人目标相关性:相关, 无关)的三因素混合方差分析。结果发现, 组别(F(1, 54) = 7.40, p < 0.01, ƞ2 = 0.12)和情绪价(F(1, 54) = 119.45, p < 0.001, ƞ2 = 0.69)的主效应显著, 个人目标相关性的主效应不显著(F(1, 54) = 0.03, p = 0.863), 情绪价和组别的交互作用(F(1, 54) = 21.82, p < 0.001, ƞ2 = 0.29), 个人目标相关性和组别的交互作用不显著(F(1, 54) = 0.02, p = 0.900), 情绪价和个人目标相关性的交互作用(F(1, 54) = 41.76, p < 0.001, ƞ2 = 0.44)显著, 情绪价、个人目标相关性和组别的交互作用也显著, F(1, 54) = 12.05, p < 0.001, ƞ2 = 0.18。

鉴于三阶交互作用显著, 进一步对抑郁组被试和非抑郁组被试的可能性评估结果, 进行了2(情绪价:积极、消极)×2(个人目标相关性:相关、无关)两因素重复测量方差分析。对抑郁组被试, 方差分析结果显示, 情绪价的主效应显著, F(1, 26) = 17.35, p < 0.001, ƞ2 = 0.40; 个人目标相关性的主效应不显著, F(1, 26) = 0.06, p = 0.815; 两者的交互作用边缘显著, F(1, 26) = 3.50, p= 0.073, ƞ2 = 0.12。对非抑郁组被试, 方差分析结果显示, 情绪价的主效应显著, F(1, 28) = 137.67, p < 0.001, ƞ2 = 0.83; 个人目标相关性的主效应不显著, F(1, 28) = 0.001, p = 0.975; 两者的交互作用显著, F(1, 28) = 63.30, p < 0.001, ƞ2 = 0.70。进一步的简单效应分析显示, 被试评估积极未来事件发生在自己身上的可能性时, 对个人目标相关的事件的评估分数显著高于与个人目标无关的事件, F(1, 28) = 23.22, p < 0.001, ƞ2 = 0.46; 在评估消极未来事件发生在自己身上的可能性时, 对个人目标相关的事件的评估分数显著低于与个人目标无关的事件, F(1, 28) = 39.88, p < 0.001, ƞ2 = 0.60。

接下来采用双样本t检验进一步分析本研究最关注的两组被试在四类事件上的差异。结果发现, 两组被试对个人目标相关的积极事件发生在自己身上的可能性评估有显著差异, t(54) = -2.80, p < 0.01, d = -0.75; 对个人目标无关的积极事件发生在自己身上的可能性评估没有显著差异, t(54) = -0.28, p = 0.774。此结果与实验1得到的结果模式一样。两组被试对个人目标相关的消极事件(t(54) = 6.27, p < 0.001, d = 1.68)和个人目标无关的消极事件(t(54) = 3.62, p < 0.001, d = 0.97)发生在自己身上可能性的评估都有显著差异。结果如图3所示。

图3

图3   抑郁组和非抑郁组对给定的不同类型未来事件发生可能性评估的直接对比

注:** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001。


3.4.2 未来事件后测的结果

对个人目标相关性的评估结果, 进行了2(组别:抑郁组, 非抑郁组) × 2(情绪价:积极, 消极) × 2(个人目标相关性:相关, 无关)的三因素混合方差分析。结果发现, 组别的主效应不显著(F(1, 54) = 1.27, p = 0.265), 情绪价(F(1, 54) = 32.18, p < 0.001, ƞ2 = 0.37)和个人目标相关性(F(1, 54) = 143.91, p < 0.001, ƞ2 = 0.73)的主效应显著, 情绪价和个人目标相关性的交互作用显著(F(1, 54)= 14.29, p < 0.001, ƞ2 = 0.21), 其余二阶和三阶交互作用均不显著(ps > 0.05)。

对情绪感受的评估结果, 进行了2(组别:抑郁组, 非抑郁组) × 2(情绪价:积极, 消极) × 2(个人目标相关性:相关, 无关)的三因素混合方差分析。结果发现, 组别的主效应不显著(F(1, 54) = 0.91, p = 0.764), 情绪价(F(1, 54) = 1165.14, p < 0.001, ƞ2 = 0.96)和个人目标相关性(F(1, 54) = 9.19, p < 0.01, ƞ2 = 0.15)的主效应显著, 情绪价和个人目标相关性的交互作用显著(F(1, 54) = 293.91, p < 0.001, ƞ2 = 0.85), 其余二阶和三阶交互作用均不显著(ps > 0.05)。

3.5 讨论

实验2的结果发现, 当评估给定的与个人目标相关的积极事件时, 抑郁组(相对于非抑郁组)被试认为发生在自己身上的可能性更低; 评估与个人目标相关的消极事件时, 抑郁组则认为发生在自己身上的可能性更高, 这符合我们的预期, 与前人的研究结果也是一致的(Beck et al., 2006; MacLeod & Byrne, 1996; MacLeod et al., 1997; MacLeod et al., 1997; Szőllősi et al., 2015; Thimm et al., 2013)。

本实验发现, 抑郁组(相对于非抑郁组)被试评估个人目标相关的积极事件发生的可能性更低, 与个人目标无关的积极事件评估则没有显著差异, 这一结果与实验1的结果是一致的, 进一步证明了抑郁倾向者未来积极预期的减弱, 受到了与个人目标相关性这一因素的调节。

本实验还发现, 当评估给定的消极事件时, 无论事件是与个人目标相关还是无关, 抑郁组(相对于非抑郁组)被试都认为发生在自己身上的可能性更高。该结果虽然与我们的预期不完全一致, 但却与很多现有研究的结果是一致的, 即抑郁者认为消极事件发生在自己身上的可能性更高(Korn et al., 2014; MacLeod & Cropley, 1995; Miles et al., 2004)。上述结果表明, 抑郁倾向者对消极未来预期的增强, 在不同类型的事件上是普遍存在的, 不受个人目标相关性的调节。

4 综合讨论

本研究通过两个实验, 考查了抑郁倾向者想象未来的异常, 即对未来积极预期的减弱和消极预期的增强, 是否受到了与个人目标相关性这一因素的影响。

4.1 抑郁倾向者未来积极预期的减弱受到与个人目标相关性的调节

本研究的实验1采用FTT范式, 发现抑郁倾向者(相比于非抑郁倾向者)想象出了更少的与个人目标相关的未来积极事件, 但在与个人目标无关的积极事件上则没有显著差异。实验2采用LEM范式, 验证了实验1的发现, 即抑郁倾向者(相比于非抑郁倾向者)仅认为未来与个人目标相关的积极事件发生在自己身上的可能性更低, 但与个人目标无关的积极事件发生在自己身上的可能性则没有表现出异常, 这一结果与实验1后测中的可能性评估结果也是一致的。上述结果表明, 抑郁倾向者对未来积极预期的减弱, 受到了个人目标相关性的调节, 这与我们的研究假设是一致的。

本研究的发现, 与现有的一些研究结果是一致的。如Vincent, Boddana和MacLeod (2004)的一项研究发现, 相对于健康控制组, 准自杀者能够想象出他们自己未来的目标, 但认为这些目标更不可能达到, 而且在考虑实现这些目标的计划时存在困难。此外, MacLeod和Conway (2007)的研究也发现, 低幸福感的个体仅在自我相关而非他人相关的积极未来想象中表现出了不足, 准自杀组(相对于控制组)表现出了自我相关的积极未来想象能力的显著降低。需要指出的是, MacLeod和Conway (2007)的研究虽然也考查了“自我”因素, 为本研究提供了间接支持, 但与本研究有着本质区别:首先, 该研究中“自我”条件是相对于“他人”条件来说的, 实际上在“自我”条件下被试完成的只是典型的FTT任务, 并没有对自我因素进行特别的实验操纵。其次, 该研究考查的是正常人(实验1)和准自杀者(实验2), 并没有考查抑郁者。

本研究的发现表明, 抑郁者对未来积极预期的减弱, 并不表现在对未来一般的积极情境预期的缺乏, 而是表现在更深的层面上——对未来与个人目标相关的积极情境想象的缺乏。对未来与个人目标相关的积极事件的逼真模拟, 能使人想象与积极后果有关的轻松感受, 主观上更相信自己积极未来的可能性, 减少对未来的烦恼和担忧, 从而实现情绪的调节, 因此对人们适应社会生活有着重要意义(Brown, Macleod, Tata, & Goddard, 2002)。抑郁症患者对未来的积极想象越生动, 就会越乐观(Ji, Holmes, & Blackwell, 2017)。但如果抑郁个体无法把将来的未来自我与积极事件相联系(“我没有未来!”), 就会产生对未来的绝望感, 严重的就会选择自杀。

上述结果是否是因为抑郁倾向者缺乏对未来可能的积极经历的认知表征呢?如果是这样, 则无论是与个人目标相关的还是无关的未来积极想象, 抑郁倾向者都会表现出不足。但我们的研究仅发现了抑郁倾向者对与个人目标相关的未来积极想象减弱, 这表明并不是因为抑郁倾向者对未来积极经历的认知表征普遍受损了。对过去事件的记忆和表征是未来想象的基础(Schacter & Addis, 2007), 在本研究中, 想象与个人目标相关的未来事件需要更多的个人卷入, 与个人的情景记忆密切相关, 而与个人目标无关的未来事件则更多反映了一种更一般化的语义表征(Atance & O’Neill, 2001)。抑郁者由于情景记忆的过度概括化、缺乏积极表象(Weßlau & Steil, 2014), 可能导致了对与个人目标相关的积极未来想象的缺陷。

4.2 抑郁倾向者未来消极预期的增强不受与个人目标相关性的影响

本研究的实验1发现, 当评估未来消极事件的可能性时, 抑郁倾向者(相对于非抑郁倾向者)仅认为与个人目标相关的消极事件发生在自己身上的可能性更高; 而实验2则发现, 当评估给定的消极事件时, 无论事件是否与个人目标相关, 抑郁倾向者都认为发生在自己身上的可能性更高。为什么实验1没有发现两组被试在与个人目标无关的消极事件的可能性评估上的差异, 而实验2发现了呢?这可能与两个实验的任务不同有关。实验1中的事件是被试自己产生的, 而实验2中的未来事件是事先提供的, 两种不同的线索产生的未来事件的表征有所不同, 被试自己临场产生的未来事件更缺乏特异性的事件细节(Neroni, Gamboz, de Vito, & Brandimonte, 2016), 这可能导致了实验1中被试自己产生的与个人目标无关的消极事件在可能性评估时没有发现两组的显著差异。

本研究发现, 当评估给定的消极事件时, 无论事件是与个人目标相关还是无关, 抑郁倾向者(相对于非抑郁倾向者)都认为发生在自己身上的可能性更高。这一点与很多现有研究的结果是一致的(Korn et al., 2014; MacLeod & Cropley, 1995; Miles et al., 2004)。这意味着, 抑郁者对未来的悲观态度呈现出弥散的模式, 这种悲观主义不仅表现在与个体人生目标相关的重要事件上, 也表现在与人生目标无关的日常事件中, 这种对消极未来预期的增强, 不受个人目标相关性的影响。

抑郁者对未来消极预期的普遍增强, 得到了许多研究的支持。研究发现, 抑郁症患者在预期未来时, 表现出了明显的悲观主义(Beck et al., 1979; Miranda & Mennin, 2007)。对未来的悲观倾向与较高的抑郁症状相关(Strunk et al., 2006)。抑郁症患者在想象最近的未来时, 会经历一系列消极的认知和情感状态(如沮丧、失望) (Sarkohi, Frykedal, Forsyth, Larsson, & Andersson, 2013)。

人们的自我表现出很强的连贯性, 回忆过去和想象未来的内容具有很强的关联性, 想象未来受到过去经验的显著影响, 过去形成的自我概念或图式会影响未来事件的想象(Cordonnier, Barnier, & Sutton, 2016)。人们很容易构建出他们经常会想到的未来事件, 以及能揭示出“他们是谁”这个核心信息的那些未来事件(D'Argembeau, Lardi, & Van der Linden, 2012)。抑郁症患者的一个显著特点是持续关注自己的内部而不太在乎外界的环境(Pyszczynski et al., 1987), 他们往往关注负面信息并进行反复的沉思、自动加工, 他们经常沉浸在自己过去的消极经历和记忆中, 因此他们也很容易想到未来的消极事件, 认为这些事件更可能发生在自己身上, 无论是与个人目标相关还是无关。而且, 重复想象具体的情感性的未来事件会促进对这类事件发生的期望(Szpunar & Schacter, 2013), 抑郁者反复思考消极观念, 也会导致他们认为未来消极事件发生的可能性增加。对可能未来的更差的产生能力、更差的评估, 以及对未来的消极信念, 共同构成了抑郁者未来预期的三大特征, 这些又反过来影响抑郁者的心境和正常功能, 从而形成恶性循环(Roepke & Seligman, 2016)。本研究的结果进一步表明, 对未来消极预期的普遍增强, 不受个人目标相关性的调节, 是抑郁倾向者的一种普遍特质。

4.3 研究不足和未来展望

本研究还存在一些不足之处。首先, 在想象未来任务中, 要求被试尽可能多的想象未来可能发生的事件, 有些被试想象得很具体、细节很多, 有些被试想象的事件细节很少, 可能会对被试想象出的事件个数造成影响。其次, 可能性评估任务中的事件, 是通过事先访谈得到每个被试的个人目标, 进而分类编制而成, 这就使得每个被试的四类事件并不完全相同, 但这种刺激材料的个性化差异是考查与个人目标相关性的未来想象研究中无法避免的一个因素(D’Argembeau et al., 2010)。此外, 鉴于本研究所用的被试都是大学生, 因此所涉及到的事件多是与大学生活相关的, 这可能会影响本研究结果的外部效度, 因此将来需要在其他群体中对本研究的发现进行进一步的验证。

在大部分关于抑郁者未来想象的研究中, 无论采用FTT范式还是LEM范式, 都没有关注事件的重要性这一维度(Andersson et al., 2013; Bjärehed et al., 2010; MacLeod et al., 1993; MacLeod & Cropley, 1995; Sarkohi, 2011)。但在考查正常人的个人目标相关性的一个脑成像实验中(D'Argembeau et al., 2010), 测量了事件对于个人的重要性, 他们发现与个人目标相关的事件对于个人的重要性显著高于与个人目标无关的事件; 个人目标相关的事件相对于个人目标无关的事件, 在腹内侧前额叶引起了更强的活动, 该脑区正好与未来想象中的个人重要性加工有关。该结果提示, 对个人的重要性正是个人目标相关和无关事件的重要差别。虽然如此, 鉴于事件对个人的重要性可能对事件的未来想象起到重要作用, 在将来的研究中, 需要将事件对个人的重要性程度作为一个重要因素, 在实验设计时加以考虑, 以便直接探讨事件与个人目标的相关性与重要性的区别和联系。

本研究的被试是非临床的大学生, 而不是临床的抑郁症患者。一方面, 研究非临床的抑郁大学生本身有其重要意义, 为临床抑郁提供了一个相当准确的模型(Hill, Kemp-Wheeler, & Jones, 1987); 另一方面, 根据生物-心理-社会医学模式的观点, 心理或精神疾病是一个变化的连续体, 非临床个体与临床患者之间的差异, 只是量上的改变, 并无本质差别(关于抑郁是一个连续体的综述可参看Flett, Vredenburg, & Krames, 1997)。正是在这种思想的指导下, 大量研究者采用了类比研究(analogue research)的范式, 在关于抑郁的研究中, 用非临床的抑郁大学生作为被试即是一种最普遍的做法(Vredenburg, Flett, & Krames, 1993)。多个元分析和多数实证研究的结果, 均没有发现非临床的抑郁大学生与临床抑郁症患者之间的显著差别(Vredenburg, Flett, & Krames, 1993)。尽管如此, 本研究的发现是否能够推广到临床的抑郁症患者中, 还需要将来实证研究进一步验证。

本研究的结果, 对于临床抑郁症患者和非临床的抑郁倾向者的治疗和干预均具有重要的启示。已经有研究证明了面向未来的积极干预对于改善抑郁症患者症状的有效作用(如Vilhauer et al., 2012), 我们的结果进一步提示, 对抑郁者进行面向未来的积极干预, 要更加集中于与个人目标相关的事情上, 如想象与他们未来的学业、工作、家庭等相关的具体事件和场景, 通过这种更加具有针对性的训练, 来有效改善其对未来的预期, 从而帮助他们改善抑郁症状, 减少自杀风险。

4.4 结论

本研究通过两个实验, 考查了非临床的抑郁倾向者未来想象的异常是否受到了个人目标相关性的调节, 得到了如下结论:(1)抑郁倾向者想象未来积极事件的异常, 受到了与个人目标相关性的调节; (2)抑郁倾向者想象未来消极事件的异常, 不受与个人目标相关性的影响, 表现出了对未来消极预期的普遍增强。本研究提示, 在未来关于抑郁者未来想象的研究中需要考虑与个人目标的相关性这一因素。

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工作记忆的中央执行系统具有注意控制和短时存储的功能。采用双任务范式,探讨了中央执行系统的注意控制和短时存储对言语流畅性的影响。实验1考察了中央执行系统的转换和抑制功能对音位流畅性和语义言语流畅性的影响。结果表明,中央执行系统的转换和抑制功能对两种言语流畅性的影响相当。实验2考察了中央执行系统的注意控制资源和短时存储资源对两种言语流畅性的影响。结果表昵,语义流畅性更依赖于短时存储资源,音位流畅性更依赖于注意控制资源。研究还发现,被试完成语义流畅性任务的策略更易受概念系统的特性影响,完成音位流畅性任务的策略更易受语言的特点影响。在实验研究的基础上,作者提出了工作记忆影响言语流畅性的理论模型。

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An experiment is reported that attempts to distinguish between anxious and depressive future thinking in terms of anticipation of future positive and future negative experiences. Anxious, mixed (anxious-depressed), and control participants were given an adapted verbal fluency paradigm to examine the ease with which they could think of future positive and negative personal experiences. Anxious participants differed from controls only in anticipating more future negative experiences; mixed participants showed both greater anticipation of negative experiences and reduced anticipation of positive experiences. Self-report measures of hopelessness and worry followed a similar pattern to future positive and future negative anticipation, respectively. The results are discussed in terms of the distinction between positive affect and negative affect (D. Watson, L. A. Clark, & G. Carey, 1988).

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Two distinctions concerning types of depressive future-thinking were examined: anticipation of positive or negative experiences at a general or a specific level. Mildly depressed (dysphoric) and nondepressed (control) undergraduates estimated the general likelihood of a range of future positive and negative events and were also asked to provide a specific example of each event. Dysphoric subjects showed a greater belief in the likelihood of negative events but did not differ significantly from controls in their likelihood estimates for positive events. Compared with controls, dysphoric subjects were faster to provide specific examples of negative events relative to positive events. Correlational analyses revealed that future-thinking concerning negative events was primarily related to levels of depression whereas future-thinking concerning positive events was primarily related to levels of hopelessness. It is concluded that there are important distinctions to be drawn concerning types of future-thinking and that these distinctions may be differentially related to particular emotional disorders.

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Previous research has shown that parasuicides' view of the future is characterized by an absence of anticipation of positive experiences rather than the presence of anticipation of negative experiences. The present study aimed to replicate this finding and examine whether it would also be found in parasuicides who were not depressed.Depressed parasuicides (N = 27), non-depressed parasuicides (N = 17) and matched controls (N = 34) were assessed on their anticipation of future positive and negative experiences using an adapted fluency paradigm, where they were given a set time to generate future positive and negative anticipated experiences.Consistent with previous findings, parasuicides showed an overall reduced anticipation of positive experiences and no overall increased anticipation of negative experiences. However, the parasuicides did show evidence of increased negative anticipation for the immediate future. The results for depressed and non-depressed parasuicides were essentially the same.Lack of positive anticipation in the absence of increased negative anticipation is a feature of parasuicide. Although this lack of positive anticipation can occur in depression, it appears to be an independent feature of parasuicide.

MacLeod A. K., Rose G. S& Williams J. M. G. ., ( 1993).

Components of hopelessness about the future in parasuicide

Cognitive Therapy and Research, 17( 5), 441-455.

DOI:10.1007/BF01173056      URL     [本文引用: 2]

Hopelessness about the future is an important component of depression in general and suicidal behavior in particular. Despite this, little research has examined the concept of hopelessness. A study is reported which adapted a verbal fluency paradigm to examine the ease with which hospitalized parasuicides, hospital controls, and nonhospital controls were able to think about future positive (things they were looking forward to) and future negative (things they were not looking forward to) events. The parasuicide subjects showed a deficit in being able to think of future positive events, both for the immediate future and for the longer-term future. but there were no differences between the groups on being able to think of future negative events. Several possible explanations of the results are discussed and some suggestions are made for future research.

MacLeod A.K., & Salaminiou E. ,( 2001).

Reduced positive future-thinking in depression: Cognitive and affective factors

Cognition and Emotion, 15( 1), 99-107.

DOI:10.1080/02699930125776      URL     [本文引用: 3]

A pessimistic view of the future is an important feature of depressive thinking, and appears to be influenced at least as strongly by reduced positive expectancies as it is by increased negative expectancies. The present study examined whether reduced positive future-thinking in depression could be accounted for by a reduced capacity to anticipate experiencing pleasure. Depressed and nondepressed participants were asked to generate positive future expectancies using a future-thinking task, and their capacity to anticipate experiencing pleasure in such events was also assessed. Depressed participants provided fewer anticipated positive experiences, a finding which was not accountable for by their reduced pleasure ratings. This reduced positive anticipation was related to levels of depression but not to levels of anxiety. The results are consistent with the view that the lack of anticipated positive experiences in depression arises from a difficulty in accessing mental representations of such experiences.

MacLeod A. K., Tata P., Evans K., Tyrer P., Schmidt U., Davidson K., … Catalan J . ( 1998).

Recovery of positive future thinking within a high-risk parasuicide group: Results from a pilot randomized controlled trial

British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 37( 4), 371-379.

DOI:10.1111/j.2044-8260.1998.tb01394.x      URL     PMID:9856290      [本文引用: 1]

Objectives. The research examined: (i) whether high risk parasuicide patients showed a deficit in positive future thinking but no increase in negative future thinking; and (ii) whether such a deficit could be remedied by a brief, manual-assisted psychological intervention (manual assisted cognitive-behaviour therapy; MACT).Design. A cross-sectional, mixed model design was used to assess differences between a sample of high risk parasuicide patients and matched controls on future thinking. A longitudinal mixed model design was used to assess changes in future thinking in the different groups over time.Methods. Parasuicide patients with a history of previous suicidal behaviour and personality disturbance were compared with a matched group of community controls on an adapted fluency measure of future thinking, which measured both quantitative and qualitative aspects of anticipated experiences. Patients were then randomly allocated to either the specific intervention (MACT) or treatment as usual (TAU) and assessed again at 6 month follow-up.Results. Parasuicide patients showed reduced positive future thinking but no increased negative future thinking. Patients who received MACT showed a significant improvement in positive future thinking over the follow-up period whereas the TAU group showed no such improvement. However, interpretation of this finding was made more difficult by the control group also showing a significant improvement in positive future thinking.Conclusion. The results confirm that parasuicide patients exhibit a relative deficit in positive future thinking and suggest that this lack of positive future thinking may be remedied, at least partly, by a brief intervention.

MacLeod A. K., Tata P., Kentish J., Carroll F., & Hunter E . ( 1997).

Anxiety, depression, and explanation-based pessimism for future positive and negative events

Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 4( 1), 15-24.

[本文引用: 1]

MacLeod A. K., Tata P., Kentish J., & Jacobsen H . ( 1997).

Retrospective and prospective cognitions in anxiety and depression

Cognition & Emotion, 11( 4), 467-479.

DOI:10.1080/026999397379881      URL     [本文引用: 5]

A study is reported that examined memory for past experiences and anticipation of future experiences within panic disorder patients (N = 17), depressed patients (N = 16), and controls (N = 17). Anticipation and recall of positive and negative experiences were examined by administering an adapted verbal fluency paradigm. Participants were asked to generate future and past, positive and negative experiences in response to various time-frame cues. Anxiety was associated with generating more negative experiences but not fewer positive experiences; depression was associated with generating fewer positive experiences but not more negative experiences. The patterns for recall of past experiences and anticipation of future experiences were very similar.

Miles H., MacLeod A. K., & Pote H . ( 2004).

Retrospective and prospective cognitions in adolescents: Anxiety, depression, and positive and negative affect

Journal of Adolescence, 27( 6), 691-701.

DOI:10.1016/j.adolescence.2004.04.001      URL     PMID:15561311      [本文引用: 1]

Abstract Research with anxious and depressed adults has suggested that anxiety is related to an increased anticipation of both negative memories and negative expectancies whereas depression is related to a reduction in positive memories and expectancies. The present study examined whether anxiety and depression in 123 school-aged adolescents would show the same pattern. Small groups completed a memory and future thinking task in which they were asked to generate future and past, positive and negative events. Adolescents with higher levels of depression and those with higher levels of anxiety reported significantly more negative events relative to controls, but neither group generated fewer positive events. The results provide support for the involvement of cognitions in mood disturbance although do not support the idea that these cognitions are different in anxiety and depression.

Miranda R., & Mennin D.S . ( 2007).

Depression, generalized anxiety disorder, and certainty in pessimistic predictions about the future

Cognitive Therapy and Research, 31( 1), 71-82.

DOI:10.1007/s10608-006-9063-4      URL     [本文引用: 4]

This study examined whether symptoms of GAD and depression were differentially associated with predictions individuals made about their future. Sixty-five undergraduates completed the BDI-II and GAD-Q-IV, predicted whether positive and negative events would happen to them in the future, and indicated their level of certainty about these predictions. Both higher GAD and depression symptoms were associated with an increased tendency to anticipate that negative events would happen. However, only depression was associated with the tendency to predict that positive events would not occur, even after adjusting for GAD symptoms. In addition, GAD and depression scores were positively associated with pessimistic certainty about negative events, but only depression was associated with increased certainty about both the occurrence of negative outcomes and a lack of positive outcomes, even after adjusting for GAD symptoms.

Neroni M. A., Gamboz N., de Vito S., & Brandimonte M. A . ( 2016).

Effects of self-generated versus experimenter- provided cues on the representation of future events

The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 69( 9), 1799-1811.

DOI:10.1080/17470218.2015.1100205      URL     PMID:26444043      [本文引用: 2]

Most experimental studies of prospection focused on episodic forms of future events prompted by means of verbal cues. However, there is evidence suggesting that future events differ considerably according to whether they are produced in response to external, experimenter-provided verbal cues or they are self-generated. In the present study, we compared the quality, the phenomenal characteristics, the temporal distribution, and the content of imagined events prompted by experimenter-provided cues (i.e., cue-words and short verbal sentences) or elicited by means of verbal cues that were self-generated in an autobiographical fluency task. The results showed that future events prompted by means of self-generated cues contained fewer event-specific details than future events prompted by experimenter-provided cues. However, future events elicited by means of self-generated and by experimenter-provided cues did not differ with respect to their phenomenal characteristics. The temporal distribution and the thematic content of future representations were also affected by the type of cue used to elicit prospection. These results offer a holistic view of the properties of future thinking and suggest that the content and the characteristics of envisioned future events may be affected by the method used to elicit prospection.

Pyszczynski T., Holt K., & Greenberg J . ( 1987).

Depression, self-focused attention, and expectancies for positive and negative future life events for self and others

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52( 5), 994-1001.

DOI:10.1037/0022-3514.52.5.994      URL     PMID:3585706      [本文引用: 2]

In two studies, we examined depressed and nondepressed persons' judgments of the probability of future positive and negative life events occurring to themselves and to others. Study 1 demonstrated that depressed subjects were generally less optimistic than their nondepressed counterparts: Although nondepressed subjects rated positive events as more likely to happen to themselves than negative events, depressed subjects did not. In addition, relative to nondepressed subjects, depressed subjects rated positive events as less likely to occur to themselves and more likely to occur to others and negative events as more likely to occur to both self and others. Study 2 investigated the role that differential levels of self-focused attention might play in mediating these differences. On the basis of prior findings that depressed persons generally engage in higher levels of self-focus than nondepressed persons do and the notion that self-focus activates one's self-schema, we hypothesized that inducing depressed subjects to focus externally would attenuate their pessimistic tendencies. Data from Study 2 supported the hypothesis that high levels of self-focus partially mediate depressive pessimism: Whereas self-focused depressed subjects were more pessimistic than nondepressed subjects, externally focused depressed subjects were not. The role of attentional focus in maintaining these and other depressive pessimistic tendencies was discussed.

Rasmussen K.W., & Berntsen D. , ( 2014).

“I can see clearly now”: The effect of cue imageability on mental time travel

Memory & Cognition, 42( 7), 1063-1075.

DOI:10.3758/s13421-014-0414-1      URL     PMID:24874508      [本文引用: 1]

Mental time travel (MTT) is the ability to mentally project oneself backward or forward in time, in order to remember an event from one's personal past or to imagine a possible event in one's personal future. Recent work has suggested that, although past and future MTT may rely on shared neurocognitive substrates, the two temporal directions may interact differently with components of this underlying system. Here, we asked 151 participants to recall or imagine past and future autobiographical events in response to high- and low-imageable cue words. The results showed that high- and low-imageable cued events differed markedly on almost all measures, suggesting that imagery acts as a facilitator when constructing both past and possible future events. In line with previous work, future events less often referred to specific events, contained fewer details, and were more positive and idyllic than past events. However, these main effects were qualified by a number of interactions. In particular, we found an increased effect of cue imageability for past as compared to future events, suggesting that the generation of past events is more sensitive to the ability of the cues to invoke the sensory components of the encoding context, whereas the construction of future events is more driven by context-independent schemata.

Roepke A.M., & Seligman M. E.P . ( 2016).

Depression and prospection

British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 55( 1), 23-48.

DOI:10.1111/bjc.12087      URL     [本文引用: 2]

Sarkohi A. ( 2011).

Future thinking and depression (Unpublished doctorial dissertation)

Linköping University.

[本文引用: 4]

Sarkohi A., Frykedal K., Forsyth H., Larsson S., & Andersson G . ( 2013).

Representations of the future in depression—A qualitative study

Psychology, 4( 4), 420-426.

[本文引用: 1]

Schacter D.L., & Addis D.R . ( 2007).

The cognitive neuroscience of constructive memory: Remembering the past and imagining the future

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B, Biological Sciences, 362( 1481), 773-786.

DOI:10.1098/rstb.2007.2087      URL     PMID:2429996      [本文引用: 1]

Episodic memory is widely conceived as a fundamentally constructive, rather than reproductive, process that is prone to various kinds of errors and illusions. With a view towards examining the functions served by a constructive episodic memory system, we consider recent neuropsychological and neuroimaging studies indicating that some types of memory distortions reflect the operation of adaptive processes. An important function of a constructive episodic memory is to allow individuals to simulate or imagine future episodes, happenings and scenarios. Since the future is not an exact repetition of the past, simulation of future episodes requires a system that can draw on the past in a manner that flexibly extracts and recombines elements of previous experiences. Consistent with this constructive episodic simulation hypothesis, we consider cognitive, neuropsychological and neuroimaging evidence showing that there is considerable overlap in the psychological and neural processes involved in remembering the past and imagining the future.

Seligman M., Railton P., Baumeister R., & Sripada C . ( 2013).

Navigating into the future or driven by the past

Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8( 2), 119-141.

DOI:10.1177/1745691612474317      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Stawarczyk D.& D'Argembeau A. , ( 2015).

Neural correlates of personal goal processing during episodic future thinking and mind-wandering: An ALE meta-analysis

Human Brain Mapping. 36( 8), 2928-2947.

DOI:10.1002/hbm.22818      URL     PMID:25931002      [本文引用: 3]

Abstract The ability to imagine the future is a complex mental faculty that depends on an ensemble of cognitive processes supported by an extended set of brain regions. Our aim here was to shed light on one key component of future thinking—personal goal processing—and to determine its neural correlates during both directed and spontaneous forms of thoughts. To address this question, we performed separate ALE meta-analyses of neuroimaging studies of episodic future thinking (EFT), mind-wandering, and personal goal processing, and then investigated the commonalities and differences in brain activity between these three domains. The results showed that the three domains activated a common set of brain regions within the default network and, most notably, the medial prefrontal cortex. This finding suggests that the medial prefrontal cortex mediates the processing of personal goals during both EFT and mind-wandering. Differences in activation were also observed, and notably regions supporting cognitive control processes (the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) were recruited to a lesser extent during mind-wandering than experimentally directed future thinking, suggesting that different kinds of self-generated thoughts may recruit varying levels of attentional control abilities. Hum Brain Mapp 36:2928–2947, 2015 . 08 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Strunk D. R., Lopez H., & DeRubeis R. J . ( 2006).

Depressive symptoms are associated with unrealistic negative predictions of future life events

Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44( 6), 861-882.

DOI:10.1016/j.brat.2005.07.001      URL     PMID:16126162      [本文引用: 1]

This study examined the relationship between depressive symptoms and bias in the prediction of future life events. Responding to internet announcements, 153 participants varying widely in self-reported depression symptom severity estimated the probability of 40 events occurring over the succeeding 30 days. After the 30-day period, participants reported which events occurred. Optimistic/pessimistic biases were related to level of depressive symptoms. A non-significant optimistic bias characterized participants with low depressive symptoms whereas a significant pessimistic bias characterized participants with high depressive symptoms. Those reporting mild symptoms did not exhibit a systematic pessimistic or optimistic bias. General imprecision in predictions for undesirable events was associated with depressive symptoms. These findings suggest that depression is associated with pessimistic bias rather than accuracy in judgment.

Szőllősi Á Pajkossy P& Racsmány M. , ( 2015).

Depressive symptoms are associated with the phenomenal characteristics of imagined positive and negative future events

Applied Cognitive Psychology, 29( 5), 762-767.

DOI:10.1002/acp.3144      URL     [本文引用: 4]

ABSTRACT Depressive symptoms are often found to be associated with the number of imagined positive and negative future episodes. Whereas most previous studies investigated the number of imagined events within a limited time period, our study focused on the phenomenal nature of future episodes and their relationships to depressive symptoms, as measured by the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). Nonclinical participants (n = 183) rated the phenomenal qualities (vividness, contextual/sensory details, felt, importance, accessibility, and certainty) of future episodes generated in response to negative and positive cue words. We found that lower ratings on the phenomenal characteristics of the positive events were associated with higher BDI scores, while an opposite pattern was observed for the negative events. However, there was no relationship between the proportion of imagined episodes that were specific and the BDI scores. Altogether, these results suggest that depressive symptom severity is associated with a wide range of phenomenal characteristics of imagined future episodes.Copyright 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Szpunar K.K., & Schacter D.L . ( 2013).

Get real: Effects of repeated simulation and emotion on the perceived plausibility of future experiences

Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 142( 2), 323-327.

DOI:10.1037/a0028877      URL     PMID:3461111      [本文引用: 4]

People frequently imagine specific interpersonal experiences that might occur in their futures. The present study used a novel experimental paradigm to examine the influence of repeated simulation of future interpersonal experiences on subjective assessments of plausibility for positive, negative, and neutral events. The results demonstrate that repeated simulation increases estimates of plausibility for emotional, but not neutral, future interpersonal experiences. Additional correlational analyses reveal that increases in plausibility for emotional events are associated with concurrent increases in ease of simulation, event detail, and arousal. Implications for daily life and affective disorders such as depression and anxiety are noted.

Thimm J. C., Holte A., Brennen T& Wang C. E. A. ., ( 2013).

Hope and expectancies for future events in depression

Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 470.

DOI:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00470      URL     PMID:3721024      [本文引用: 1]

The present study investigated prospective cognition with the Hope scale (Snyder et al.,1991) and the Unrealistic Optimism Scale (Weinstein,1980) in clinically depressed (CD;n= 61), previously depressed (PD;n= 42), and never depressed controls (ND;n= 46). In line with previous research, significant negative correlations between hope and symptoms of depression were found. Previously depressed reported lower levels of hope than NDs, but were more hopeful than CDs. In addition, relationships between depressive symptoms, dysfunctional attitudes, and expectations for the future were examined. As hypothesized, the CDs estimated their probability of experiencing positive events in the future as lower and their probability of experiencing negative events as higher than the two other groups. The PDs differed not from the NDs in their probability estimates. Implications of the findings are discussed.

Vilhauer J. S., Young S., Kealoha C., Borrmann J., IsHak W. W., Rapaport M. H., … Mirocha J . ( 2012).

Treating major depression by creating positive expectations for the future: A pilot study for the effectiveness of future-directed therapy (FDT) on symptom severity and quality of life

CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics, 18( 2), 102-109.

DOI:10.1111/j.1755-5949.2011.00235.x      URL     PMID:21615882      [本文引用: 1]

Introduction: This nonrandomized pilot study assesses the efficacy of a new future-oriented form of therapy, known as future-directed therapy (FDT), as a treatment for patients with Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) in a naturalistic hospital-based outpatient psychiatry clinic. The study measured symptom severity of depression and anxiety, in addition to quality of life pre- and posttreatment.Aims: The study examined a new manualized treatment designed to help people anticipate a more positive future. The intervention consists of twenty 90-min group sessions administered twice a week over 10 weeks. The intervention was compared to depressed patients in the same clinic who enrolled in traditional cognitive-based group psychotherapy. Sixteen patients with MDD completed the FDT intervention as part of their outpatient treatment for depression. Seventeen patients with MDD participated in treatment as usual (TAU) cognitive-based group therapy. The Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptoms, the Beck Anxiety Inventory, and the Quality-of-Life Enjoyment and Satisfaction Questionnaire short form, self-report instruments were administered prior to and immediately after the completion of therapy.Results: Patients treated with FDT demonstrated significant improvements in depression (P= 0.001), anxiety (P= 0.021) and quality of life (P= 0.035), and also reported high satisfaction with the therapy. Compared to the TAU group, patients treated with FDT showed greater improvements in depressive symptoms (P= 0.049).Conclusions: FDT may have the potential of becoming an additional treatment option for patients with MDD.

Vincent P. J., Boddana P., & MacLeod A. K . ( 2004).

Positive life goals and plans in parasuicide

Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 11( 2), 90-99.

DOI:10.1002/cpp.394      URL     [本文引用: 1]

This is semi-test research with nonequivalent groups with control group, and pre-test and post-test was designed and conducted by generalization of surveying the effectiveness of group education of marital enrichment program (Olson Style) on improvement of married women's satisfaction whose husbands were not participating in marital relation improvement program. For this purpose, 40 women were selected by available sampling among statistical population of married women visiting one of Health Centers owned by Tehran District 6 municipality, having at least one child, not working as full-time and having no complaint or divorce request at time of research. These women were divided to test and control groups by non-random method. Test group attended in ten 90-minute sessions of marital relation improvement by Olson Method, while control group did not interfere as waiting list. In order to measure dependent variable, 40-question Enrich Scale Form (Bahmani & Asgari, 2006) was used. Data were analyzed through SPSS-16 for calculation of abundance, mean, variance analysis, Levin's statistical test, and covariance analysis. Results of multi-variable covariance analysis showed that total marital satisfaction mean for test group was more than control group and statistically differences were meaningful at level of 1% probability (p<%1). Therefore, it could be concluded that marital relation enrichment program by Olson style improves women's total marital satisfaction even their husbands do not attend in this educational program.

Vredenburg K., Flett G. L., & Krames L . ( 1993).

Analogue versus clinical depression: A critical reappraisal

Psychological Bulletin, 113( 2), 327-344.

DOI:10.1037/0033-2909.113.2.327      URL     PMID:8451338      [本文引用: 2]

Much of the existing psychological literature on depression is based on research with college students. An important question is whether depression in college students represents an appropriate analogue of depression in clinical patients. The purpose of the present article is to review past evidence on this issue from a critical perspective. Past arguments are examined, and little support is found for the position that depression research with college students is not warranted. Moreover, the results of studies with student and clinical samples are compared, and the findings are generally similar across populations. Next, a number of methodological issues are identified that may actually favor the use of depressed college students, and some methodological recommendations for future research are outlined. Finally, an appeal is made for research that directly examines the analogue-clinical issue and the nature of college student depression.

Weßlau C.& Steil R. ,( 2014).

Visual mental imagery in psychopathology—Implications for the maintenance and treatment of depression

Clinical Psychology Review, 34( 4), 273-281.

DOI:10.1016/j.cpr.2014.03.001      URL     PMID:24727643      [本文引用: 1]

61Negative mental images can influence the onset and maintenance of depression.61Distressing images are common and occur in 32 to 100% of depressed individuals.61Flash-forwards to suicide or self-harm can potentially influence future behavior.61Depressed patients suffer from a lack of vivid positive future-directed imagery.61Imagery rescripting and imaginal exposure are effective in treating depression.

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