ISSN 1671-3710
CN 11-4766/R
主办:中国科学院心理研究所
出版:科学出版社

心理科学进展, 2018, 26(7): 1284-1293 doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2018.01284

研究前沿

社会规范的动态过程

陈维扬, 谢天,

武汉大学哲学学院心理学系, 武汉 430072

The dynamic process of social norm development

CHEN Weiyang, XIE Tian,

Department of Psychology, School of Philosophy, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China

通讯作者: 谢天, E-mail:thanksky520@126.com

收稿日期: 2017-07-29   网络出版日期: 2018-07-15

基金资助: 国家社会科学基金教育学青年课题的资助(课题名称:物质主义的成因分析及其教育对策)(CBA150154)

Received: 2017-07-29   Online: 2018-07-15

Fund supported: (CBA150154)

摘要

社会心理学的经典研究将社会规范区分为描述性规范与指令性规范。近年来, 研究者从以往对社会规范的静态区分, 开始深入研究社会规范“如何发展变化”的动态过程, 即探究社会规范的习得、传播与转变过程, 以及社会规范发挥作用的影响因素。社会规范的习得可以追溯至童年早期的社会互动, 描述性规范的形成是个体在社会网络中学习社会范畴典型范例的过程, 对现状的合理化催生了描述性规范向指令性规范的转化。社会规范发挥作用也呈现动态性, 不仅与社会规范的心理功能相关, 即遵守或违反社会规范能满足个体的安全感、归属感、独特感需要等, 还与外部环境如权力位置、惩罚机制相关。未来研究可对社会规范形成过程、作用过程做进一步分析; 结合社会规范强度研究, 深入探讨规范性影响的作用过程; 开展文化情境下的社会规范研究等。

关键词: 社会规范; 动态过程; 社会网络; 心理需要

Abstract

Classic studies distinguish social norms from descriptive and injunctive norms. In contrast to this static division, research has recently begun to focus on the dynamic process of social norm development, including the acquisition, transmission, and transformation of social norms as well as their influencing factors. The acquisition of social norms can be traced back to early childhood social interaction. The formation of descriptive norms can be considered a result of the learning of exemplars of a social category. The rationalization of the status quo has led to the transformation of descriptive norms into injunctive norms. The influencing factors of social norms are not only related to their psychological functions - to meet individuals’ needs for security, belonging, and uniqueness - but also to external environment, which involves power positions and punishment mechanisms. To probe the process of normative influence, future studies could further analyze the formation and action processes of social norms, take account of studies of social norm strength, and analyze social norms in their cultural context.

Keywords: social norms; dynamic process; social networks; psychological needs

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本文引用格式

陈维扬, 谢天. 社会规范的动态过程 . 心理科学进展, 2018, 26(7): 1284-1293 doi:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2018.01284

CHEN Weiyang, XIE Tian. The dynamic process of social norm development. Advances in Psychological Science, 2018, 26(7): 1284-1293 doi:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2018.01284

1 引言

“无规矩, 不成方圆”。社会的正常运行离不开社会规范对人们行为的引导和调节, 因此, 社会规范成为社会科学领域中社会学、法学、经济学等多个学科所关心的概念。Cialdini及其同事的经典研究将社会规范区分为描述性规范(descriptive norm)与指令性规范(injunctive norm) (Cialdini, Kallgren, & Reno, 1991)。描述性规范指个体对于社会特定情境中人们真实行为的知觉, 而指令性规范则是个体知觉到的他人认同或反对的行为总和。Cialdini等人的系列研究发现利用规范引导、调节人们的行为有时比教育、经济刺激、法律制裁更高效、更节约成本(Cialdini, Martin, & Goldstein, 2015)。

近年来, 研究者在上述对社会规范的实质(substance)进行静态区分的基础上, 开始深入分析社会规范的“动态过程”。一方面, 研究者探索了社会规范的形成过程, 即社会规范是如何被个体习得, 如何在社会网络中得到传播, 以及如何转变的。另一方面, 研究者还考察了个体在不同情境下或遵守或违背社会规范的影响因素。本文将对上述社会规范的两大方面研究进行介绍, 并针对该领域已有研究的发展思路展望未来研究可能存在的突破点。

2 社会规范的形成过程

社会规范的形成过程主要包括社会规范的习得、传播与转变。社会规范的习得, 从个体发生学角度研究, 可以追溯至童年早期的社会互动; 从社会网络来看, 则既是个体在社会网络中学习社会范畴典型范例的过程, 也是规范在社会网络中传播的结果。同时, 社会规范在被个体习得并在社会网络中得到传播后, 并非一成不变, 描述性规范在某些情况下还会转变为指令性规范。

2.1 儿童社会规范的习得

个体何时能够习得社会规范?近年来, 研究者发现童年早期的社会互动已经能够让儿童形成社会规范。在儿童社会规范习得的研究中, 合作与公平是研究的两大主题。合作行为通常采用分享任务范式, 比如设计一个游戏装置(如轨道游戏, 小球顺着轨道运行并发出音乐), 让儿童决定是否与他人分享自己的游戏资源(如小球)以及分享的数目。公平则常采用资源分配任务范式, 比如给被试呈现一种资源分配方案(平等分配或不平等分配), 然后测量被试对该分配方案的接受程度。

从社会规范习得的时间脉络来看, 最早被儿童习得的社会规范是合作类规范中的互惠。Warneken和Tomasello (2013)给2.5岁和3.5岁的儿童呈现轨道游戏装置, 儿童与他人(主试扮演的手偶)在玩这个轨道游戏时可决定是否共享以及共享的水平。实验结果显示2.5岁儿童分享小球的水平与他人的分享水平无关, 而3.5岁儿童在他人分享时自己也更愿意分享给他人, 即3.5岁儿童已经习得了互惠规范。

儿童在形成互惠规范的基础上, 4.5岁开始形成公平规范。研究者采用资源分配任务范式, 让儿童扮演接受者, 发现无论是在劣势不平等条件(disadvantageous inequality, 接受者获得的资源少于分配者), 还是优势不平等条件(advantageous inequality, 接受者获得的资源多于分配者), 4.5岁儿童的接受程度都比平等条件更低, 说明4.5岁儿童已经习得了公平规范(Williams & Moore, 2016)。

5岁儿童在规范习得方面取得较大进展。首先, 5岁儿童对于劣势不平等的分配条件认可程度高于优势不平等, 说明他们对公平规范的认识更深, 已经摆脱了绝对平均的理解(Williams & Moore, 2016); 其次, 5岁儿童在社交互动中已经能够为了协调人际关系而主动使用规范性语言建立规则, 完成指定任务。GÖckeritz, Schmidt和Tomasello (2014)设置了一项需要几名儿童合作完成的游戏, 并记录游戏过程中儿童的语言, 用儿童使用的规范性语言(如“要”、“必须”、“不能”等)来作为规则建立的指标。结果发现, 在没有成人指导的情况下, 5岁儿童已经可以通过协商探索游戏的方法, 在冲突发生时能够使用规范性语言进行协调。随着探索的不断深入, 儿童使用的规范性语言量逐渐减少, 但当有新成员加入时, 规范性语言又急剧增多起来(GÖckeritz et al., 2014)。

6岁儿童对于公平规范的习得更加深入, 甚至愿意为了维护公平规范而付出代价, 施加第三方惩罚。第三方惩罚指与分配者、接受者无关的第三方, 当看到不平等分配发生时, 愿意付出代价(如交出自己的糖果或贴纸)惩罚分配者, 属于“路见不平, 拔刀相助”的利他性惩罚(Fehr & Gächter, 2002)。McAuliffe, Jordan和Warneken (2015)采用资源分配任务范式对5岁、6岁儿童的第三方惩罚行为进行研究, 结果发现, 6岁儿童身上才能清晰地发现第三方惩罚的行为, 即愿意为了公平规范而牺牲自己的利益, 说明6岁儿童对公平规范的习得已达到较高水平。

7~8岁儿童已经能够结合长时段信息来确定是否公平。Xie, Ho, Meier和Zhou (2017)采用再分配游戏测试不同年龄儿童对平等分配资源的意向。他们给不同年龄段儿童(3~4岁、5~6岁、7~8岁、9~10岁)呈现糖果的再分配过程, 控制组未改变初始的贫富等级, 实验组改变了初始的贫富等级。结果发现, 3~4岁、5~6岁组被试并未显示出保持原有贫富等级的倾向; 7~8岁、9~10岁组被试却表现出对改变初始贫富等级的厌恶, 且与成人表现无异, 说明7~8岁儿童习得的公平规范已经比较复杂, 可以将较长时间的信息考虑在内。

此外, 儿童的规范习得还具有文化差异。Blake等人(2015)采用资源分配任务范式对7个国家(加拿大、印度、墨西哥、秘鲁、塞内加尔、乌干达、美国)的4~15岁儿童进行了研究, 发现各个国家都存在劣势不平等分配, 但只有在加拿大、美国、乌干达才出现优势不平等分配, 且优势不平等分配出现的年龄晚于劣势不平等分配。

2.2 社会网络中描述性规范的习得与传播

描述性规范的形成是个体在社会网络中学习社会范畴典型范例的过程(Kashima, Wilson, Lusher, Pearson, & Pearson, 2013)。当个体长期处于某个社群时, 会对该群体的信息编码, 编码后的信息会被储存在记忆系统中, 形成对社群信息的表征, 即描述性规范。此后, 在一定诱发线索条件下, 这些描述性规范就会被激活和提取。描述性规范的习得过程有两种备择解释, 即经验路径(experiential route)和概念路径(conceptual route), 前者指观察社交网络中熟人的实际行为推测人们的典型行为习得规范; 后者指根据社交网络中熟人口中描述的他人典型行为推测人们的典型行为习得规范。为了检验上述两种可能的路径, 研究者采用“滚雪球”取样, 让被试提名除家人外的5名熟人, 从而构筑起社会互动网络, 然后让被试报告自己的社区参与行为, 以及他们知觉到的社区参与的描述性规范。自动逻辑行动者特性模型(autologistic actor attribute models, ALAAM)的分析发现, 在控制混淆变量后, 被试知觉到的描述性规范仅依赖于社会网络中其他被试报告的实际社区参与程度, 而不依赖于他人知觉到的描述性规范, 说明描述性规范的习得路径为经验路径而非概念路径(Kashima et al., 2013)。

描述性规范反映了群体实际存在的流行行为和观点, 而观点之所以能够流行靠的是社会互动过程中观点的传播与扩散(Gao, Qiu, Chiu, & Yang, 2015)。Gao等人(2015)采用计算机模拟技术(基于行动者的模型, agent-based modeling, ABM)模拟实际的社会互动。社会互动方式被分为两类, 第一类是自我中心言语(egocentric speeches), 即说话者说的内容都是自己的观点, 以传播自己的观点为目的; 另一类是听众设计(audience design), 即说话者根据听众的反应调整自己说的内容, 目的是达成共识。ABM模拟显示, 当设定社会成员(agent)与跟自己观点相同的人交流互动时, 无论社会互动方式是自我中心言语还是听众设计, 持不同观点人数的相对分布不会发生变化, 即观点未被传播、扩散。但有趣的是, 当设定社会成员与跟自己观点不同的人交流互动时:如果设定交流方式为自我中心言语, 则持少数人观点的人数下降, 持多数人观点的人数上升, 即交流系统内认知同质水平上升; 如果设定交流方式为听众设计, 则持少数人观点的人数上升, 持多数人观点的人数下降, 即交流系统内的认知多样性水平上升。这说明, 只有与观点不同的成员交流互动才会引发观点分布的变化, 而交流方式进一步影响了整个系统内观点(描述性规范)的分布规律。

2.3 描述性规范向指令性规范的转变

在某些情况下描述性规范可以转变为指令性规范。这可以视为指令性规范的形成。Jost, Sterling和Langer (2015)从系统公正理论(system justification theory)的角度论述了描述性规范向指令性规范转化的心理机制。系统公正理论认为, 现状相对于其它替代状况更加合情合理, “典型的行为经常是被赞许的”, 因此, “是什么”就会转变为“应该是什么” (from is to ought), 这也就解释了刻板印象期待对于行为的塑造作用, 例如性别方面的刻板印象期待就对个体的性别角色适应性行为进行了规定(Prentice & Carranza, 2002)。从系统公正理论出发, 描述性规范就是对现状的描述, 而人们倾向于将现状合理化, 因此描述性规范会向指令性规范转化, 也有学者把这个过程称之为描述性规范的道德化(Morris & Liu, 2015)。

Eriksson, Strimling和Coultas (2015)进一步通过实证研究探究描述性规范与指令性规范的相容性, 检验描述性规范向指令性规范转化的心理机制。他们采用内隐联想测验的实验范式, 实验刺激分为道德词(如“正确的” “好的”)、不道德词(“错误的” “不好的”)、高频词 (如“几乎每个人” “多数人” “典型的”)、低频词(“几乎没有人” “少数人” “非典型的”)。由于遵循描述性规范经常体现为从众行为, 遵循指令性规范经常体现为道德行为, 他们用“高频词” “低频词”来反映描述性规范, 用“道德词” “不道德词”来反映指令性规范。被试需要按照要求尽可能快地做出反应, 实验分为两种条件, 一是描述性规范与指令性规范相容(当道德词与高频词同时出现或不道德词与低频词同时出现时作反应); 二是描述性规范与指令性规范不相容(当不道德词与高频词同时出现或道德词与低频词同时出现时作反应)。结果发现相容条件下被试反应时更短, 从而证明了描述性规范与指令性规范的相容性。

在内隐联想测验的基础上, Eriksson等(2015)还设计了情境实验, 通过考察行为频率(反映描述性规范)与道德判断(反映指令性规范)之间的关系检验描述性规范与指令性规范的相容性。为了使行为频率的操纵更为自然, 这些具体行为(如“体罚小孩” “嘲弄政客” “帮助朋友考试作弊”等)都设置在被试所不了解的异文化区。对一部分被试而言, 他们被告知这些行为在当地是“司空见惯”的(“普遍组”被试), 对另一部分被试而言, 他们被告知这些行为在当地并不多见(“非普遍组”被试); 最后让这两组被试对这些行为的道德程度进行评分, 结果发现, “非普遍组”相对于“普遍组”的被试对这些行为的道德程度评分更低, 说明行为频率的确能够影响个体的道德判断, 低频行为更容易被看成是不道德行为。这一研究结果表明, 尽管描述性规范本身不具有评价属性, 但人们会赋予其评价属性, 从而催生描述性规范向指令性规范的转化。

3 社会规范发挥作用的影响因素

社会规范在形成后, 其作用效果受一系列因素的制约, 使得个体在不同条件下或遵守社会规范或违背社会规范。这些因素主要包括个体的心理状态(如安全感、归属感与独特感需要)和外部环境(权力位置、惩罚机制)。

3.1 安全感

在安全感对社会规范发挥作用的影响方面, 研究者将安全感细分为两类, 即生存安全感(existential security)与认识论安全感(epistemic security)。

3.1.1 生存安全感

生存安全感是最基本的安全感, 是个体对于维持生命安全, 确保身体免遭伤害这一基本需要的体现。社会威胁程度较高时(如生态恶化的生态威胁、战争的军事威胁等), 个体往往无法单独应对这些威胁, 因而不同个体间的协调、合作显得更为必要, 而社会规范就是协调个体间关系的重要工具, 因此个体遵守规范程度会更高, 社会规范的影响力也会更大。就相关实证研究而言, 部分研究者将着眼点聚焦个体, 探究个体的死亡威胁对于其遵守社会规范的影响; 还有研究者聚焦社会, 探究社会威胁程度与规范遵守之间的关系。

在个体层面, 研究者发现, 当引发个体的死亡威胁时(如思考“当你死亡时会发生什么?”), 其文化刻板行为显著增加, 个体主义文化下的个体更加遵守个体主义相关的规范, 集体主义文化下的个体更加遵守集体主义相关的规范(Kashima, Halloran, Yuki, & Kashima, 2004)。Castano (2004)将死亡词以阈下刺激形式呈献给苏格兰被试, 然后让他们将混合有苏格兰和英格兰人物照片的图片进行分类, 最后对两类人物的特质做评判。结果发现, 死亡启动组被试较控制组被试更容易将模棱两可的照片排除出苏格兰类别, 并认为英格兰类别的人物品质更负面。这说明死亡启动组较控制组更认同内群体, 并做出符合内群体规范的行为(如贬损外群体)以提高内群体自尊等。

在社会层面, 一个国家或地区受到社会威胁的程度也会让该社会进化出或强或弱的社会规范。强的社会规范对偏离规范行为的容忍度低, 弱的社会规范对偏离规范行为的容忍度高。Gelfand等人(2011)搜集了33个国家或地区(横跨亚、欧、美、大洋洲)的生态环境、历史、政治相关的年鉴资料, 并测量了上述国家或地区被试感知到的社会规范强度以及他们在具体情境下感受到的情境限制程度。结果发现, 当一个社会在历史上面临的生存威胁1(1具体包括各个国家(或地区)的人口密度、历史上的战乱强度、自然灾害数量、资源稀缺度、传染疾病发病率等生态的、历史的威胁相关的数据信息, 以及政府控制力、法律强度(如有无死刑)、宗教等社会-政治机构信息。)越多(越少)时, 身处该社会的人们感知到的社会规范强度越高(越低), 感受到的情境限制2(2具体测量方式为要求每个国家的被试评估15种情境下(如在家、在学校、在公园、在工作单位等), 12种具体行为(如说话、大笑、哭、跳、喊等)的适当性, 最后用不同情境下具体行为适当性的平均分代表该国被试的情境限制度得分。)越多(越少), 感知到的社会规范强度在生存威胁与感受到的情境限制间起中介作用。这种社会规范的强度差异用文化维度来刻画即构成了“松-紧文化”的划分(卢俊, 陈浩, 乐国安, 2017), 即易受生态和历史威胁的社会更容易形成“紧”文化, 反之为“松”文化。Roos, Gelfand, Nau和Lun (2015)则以进化博弈论(evolutionary game theory, EGT)为基础, 利用计算机模拟探究社会威胁程度与社会规范强度以及规范遵守之间的关系。他们采用公共物品博弈(Public Goods Game)的实验范式, 通过调整实验过程中行动者(agent)的收益量操纵社会威胁程度(收益越少表明社会威胁程度越大), 然后观察行动者的合作行为与背叛行为比例。计算机模拟结果发现, 随着社会威胁程度增加, 行动者的合作行为比例显著上升, 背叛行为比例显著下降, 行动者对背叛行为的惩罚比例也显著上升, 合作演化成为主导性的行为策略, 社会规范的强度也显著增强; 随着社会威胁程度降低, 行动者合作行为比例显著下降, 背叛行为比例显著上升, 对背叛行为的惩罚比例也显著下降, 社会规范强度显著减弱。总之, 上述研究系统地描绘出造成生存不安全感的环境如何最终孕育出高强度规范社会的文化进化过程。

3.1.2 认识论安全感

认识论安全感体现为个体对认知确定性的追求。社会规范提供的信息线索有助于个体获得认知的确定性, 因此个体会出于获得认识论安全感的目的遵循社会规范(Morris & Liu, 2015)。研究者通常用认知闭合需求(个体在信息处理过程中更偏好尽快获取确定性答案的认知倾向, Need for Cognitive Closure, NFCC)考察个体对于认知确定性的追求程度(Kruglanski, 2004)。

认知闭合需求能够启动个体对规范的遵守。对意大利大学生的调查发现, 相对于低认知闭合需求者, 高认知闭合需求者的健康行为与其父母的健康行为一致性更强(Livi, Kluglanski, Pierro, Mannetti, & Kenny, 2015)。对移民的调查也发现, 拥有高认知闭合需求的移民相较于低认知闭合需求者, 能够更快地遵守并认同当地的规则以完成文化适应(Kosic, Kruglanski, Pierro, & Mannetti, 2004)。一项以美国大学本科生以及中国MBA学生为被试的实验研究发现, 相对于低认知闭合需求者, 高认知闭合需求者在解决冲突情境中的困难时更倾向于遵循符合本文化的社会规范(如美国文化强调个体, 中国文化强调关系); 但当个体对本国文化缺乏认同转而认同他国文化时, 高认知闭合需求者会转而遵循他国的文化规范。因此, 无论本国规范还是他国规范, 认知闭合需求都激发了个体遵循社会规范的行为(Chao, Zhang, & Chiu, 2010)。此外, 认知闭合需求不仅仅是个体较为稳定的认知倾向, 在特定情境下也可以被实验者所操纵, 如通过在实验室设置噪音就可以引发被试的认知闭合需求(Kruglanski, 2004)。Livi等人(2015)以意大利大学生为被试设计了一个三人商业讨论情境, 讨论某软件目标用户的年龄和月收入。在讨论中, 实验组被试将会听到空调故障的噪音, 而控制组则无此噪音。讨论分为10轮, 每轮结束后一名被试离开, 然后补入一名新被试。在第一轮时, 三人中有两位假被试, 他们故意将目标用户平均年龄和月收入说得很低(控制多数意见)。第二轮一名假被试离开, 补入一名新的真被试。第三轮又一名假被试离开, 至此之后的各轮均为真被试参与。结果发现, 相对于无噪音条件, 在噪音条件下新补入的真被试更易报告与他人贴近的数值, 说明高认知闭合需求能让人更容易受到描述性规范的影响。

3.2 归属感与独特感需要

归属感与独特感是最佳区辨理论(optimal distinctiveness theory)提出的两种相互对立的社会性需要(Brewer, 1991)。当个体感觉自己与外界格格不入时, 就会想要通过遵守社会规范以融入社群获得归属感; 当个体感觉自己与外界没什么差别时, 又会想要通过违反社会规范来标新立异, 获得独特感(Kwan, Yap, & Chiu, 2015)。

遵守描述性规范让个体可以做出与群体一致的行为, 满足了个体对于归属感的需要(Morris, Chiu, & Liu, 2015)。当这种描述性规范内化为个体价值观时, 个体对群体的认同度显著提高, 对群体的依赖程度也显著上升(Wan, 2015)。对于美国人, 持枪自由是一种描述性规范。即使部分个体不认同这种规范, 但为了避免受到孤立, 也很少公开地表达自己的意见, 而那些强烈认同持枪规范的人(如美国步枪协会的成员)会更加认同所属群体并强烈捍卫这一规范(Gao et al., 2015)。

个体的归属感需要也受到文化价值观的影响。实证研究表明, 持集体主义价值观的个体更希望融入群体, 更易于遵守描述性规范, 描述性规范对行为的预测力也更强。例如, Savani, Wadhwa, Uchida, Ding和Naidu (2015)以美国人和印度人为被试, 先给被试呈现40幅鞋子的照片并让被试评定对鞋子图片的喜爱程度, 然后让被试录入一段文字材料来启动描述性规范(一组文字材料大意为这个国家多数人做决策遵循的是自己的偏好, 另一组文字材料大意为这个国家多数人做决定不只考虑自己的偏好), 最后再呈现鞋子的照片, 让被试挑选最喜爱的鞋子。通过对比被试的选择与之前评定(评定为喜爱程度最高的)的一致性, 发现美国被试无论被启动何种描述性规范, 最终选择与开始评定之间的一致性都无显著差异; 而印度被试当启动“多数人做决定不只考虑自己”的描述性规范时, 最终选择与开始评定的一致性显著低于启动“多数人做决策遵循自己偏好”的实验条件。这说明, 与美国人相比, 印度人的行为受描述性规范的影响更大。再如, Eom, Kim, Sherman和Ishii (2016)研究了环保行为的影响因素, 他们调查了欧裔美国人、日本人的环保关切(对环境保护的重视程度)、环保相关的描述性规范(如“你估计有多大比例的人会参与环保行为”)与环保行为(购买绿色环保商品的比例, 该商品价格贵于普通商品), 结果发现, 对于环保关切与环保行为的关系, 仅欧裔美国人在两者间构成显著的预测关系; 对于环保相关的描述性规范与环保行为的关系, 仅日本人在两者间构成显著的预测关系。这说明集体主义国家(日本)的个体行为更受描述性规范的影响, 而个体主义国家(欧裔美国人)的个体行为更受个体价值观的影响。

违背规范能满足个体追求独特感的需要。独特感需要让个体厌倦“墨守成规”的生活方式, 刻意与主流社会规范保持距离(Kreuzbauer, Chiu, Lin, & Bae, 2014)。不同文化对自我表达、独特性、新异性的重视程度不同, 重视独特感的文化一般是社会规范强度较为“松散”的文化(Gelfand et al., 2011)。一项针对美国国内50个州社会规范强度比较的研究发现, “紧”的社会规范所在的州创新程度较弱(Harrington & Gelfand, 2014)。

归属感需要与独特感需要可以在不同条件下被激发从而影响社会规范的作用效果。Kwan等人(2015)通过给予被试假人格测验反馈的方法激发归属感需要(被试被告知自己的测验结果与他人大相径庭)与独特感需要(被试被告知自己的测验结果与他人大同小异)。当被试的归属感需要被激发时, 被试接触阈下刺激(如新异词汇)的频率可以影响个体对这些刺激的偏好程度, 而被试感觉到的他人对这些刺激的熟悉程度(描述性规范)在其中起中介作用; 当被试的独特感需要被激发时, 被试接触阈下刺激的频率无法影响个体对这些刺激的偏好程度, 被试感觉到的他人对这些刺激的熟悉程度也不影响个体对这些刺激的偏好程度。这一结果说明, 当被试的独特感需要被激发后, 描述性规范就失效了。

3.3 权力

对权力的追求是人类的基本动机(Anderson, Hildreth, & Howland, 2015)。个体违反社会规范的行为往往被看作是高权力者的特权。van Kleef, Homan, Finkenauer, Gündemir和Stamkou (2011)通过情景描述、视频放映、实际互动等方式呈现个体的违规行为(如随意使用他人物品、不遵守会计规则、把脚放在椅子上)。结果发现, 与遵守规范者相比, 被试普遍认为这些违规者权力更高。此外, 低权力者比高权力者更容易受外在规范及信息线索的影响。Galinsky, Magee, Gruenfeld, Whitson和Liljenquist (2008)通过让部分被试回忆并写下自己成功影响他人的经历启动高权力感, 通过让另外的被试回忆并写下自己被他人影响的经历启动低权力感, 然后告诉被试他们即将踏入一个新的星球, 并看到这个星球的新物种, 最后让被试画出他们头脑中物种的形态。无论高权力组或低权力组, 都有一半的被试被提供物种形态的样例(一个带有翅膀的外星人形象), 另一半则无此样例信息。结果发现, 当提供样例信息时, 高权力组添加翅膀的比例显著低于低权力组, 即高权力组被试更不容易受到样例信息的影响。Bowles和Gelfand (2010)通过类似方法启动权力感, 然后让高权力组与低权力组评定自己遵守规范的程度(如“听从指示” “坚守规则”), 结果发现, 高权力组在规范量表上的得分显著低于低权力组, 同样说明高权力者更少遵循社会规范。

违规行为在某种程度上是对社会等级的冲击和重塑, 不同权力位置的个体对违规行为的看法也呈现出差异。研究者采用一系列研究考察高低权力者对违规者的授权程度, 他们通过情景描述、视频放映等方式呈现违规行为, 被试被分为高、低权力组(部分通过启动操纵状态性权力位置, 部分通过问卷调查特质性权力位置), 结果发现, 只有高特质性权力组相比低特质性权力组授予更少的权力给违规者, 而状态性权力无此效应, 即高特质性权力者更不容忍他人的违规行为。研究者认为这体现了高特质性权力者维持社会等级的目标(Stamkou, van Kleef, Homan, & Galinsky, 2016)。

人们对违规行为的看法也受违规行为性质的影响。van Kleef, Homan, Finkenauer, Blaker和Heerdink (2012)采用上述研究范式(情景描述、视频放映、实际互动)考察被试对于违规行为的看法, 不同的是, 研究者此次区分了两种违规行为, 一是自私的或非利他的违规行为(随意取用实验主试的咖啡), 二是亲社会的违规行为(随意取用实验主试的咖啡并分给其他被试)。结果表明, 相对于无违规行为, 被试对亲社会的违规行为更为接受, 并愿意赋予其权力, 说明受惠群体对违规行为的强化(愿意赋予其更大权力)可能增加了个体进一步违规的可能性。

3.4 惩罚

由于指令性规范具有评价功能, 如果不被遵守, 随之而来的可能是制裁与惩罚。这种惩罚除了包括自身利益受损, 还包括自身名誉受损。因此相对于私人空间或匿名场合, 在公众场合个体更多表现出符合规范的行为(Gelfand & Jackson, 2016)。惩罚促使人们遵守规范, 是因为惩罚传达了一种义务原则, 迫使个体不得不遵守规范(Mulder, 2008)。研究显示, 当惩罚伴随着规范信息呈现时(相对于惩罚与规范信息单独呈现), 会引发更多、更稳定的合作行为(Andrighetto et al., 2013), 而个体只有出于维护社会规范的目的才会进行第三方惩罚, 因此第三方惩罚作为一种利他性惩罚也体现了社会规范的存在。

第三方惩罚行为有利于社会规范的实施与执行(Fehr & Fischbacher, 2004)。陈思静、何铨和马剑虹(2015)细分了真实的第三方惩罚以及对以往第三方惩罚实施的感知在激活指令性规范与描述性规范中的作用。他们采用独裁者博弈范式, 每一位被试需完成四轮分配任务, 将获得的部分资金分配给他人, 并告知被试同时还有其他的分配者也在完成该任务(1-直接分配; 2-存在第三方惩罚的分配; 3-存在第三方惩罚的分配并告知上一轮各个分配者被第三方惩罚的人数比例; 4-撤销第三方惩罚的分配)。结果发现, 当有第三方惩罚出现时, 被试分配给他人的金额更多; 当存在第三方惩罚并且被试被告知上一轮第三方惩罚的比率越高时, 被试倾向于在该轮给他人更多的金额; 当撤销第三方惩罚后, 之前被告知较低比例(10%)第三方惩罚的被试给予他人更多的金额, 而之前被告知较高比例(70%~80%)第三方惩罚的被试则给予他人更少的金额。这说明第三方惩罚本身激活了被试的指令性规范; 而对以往第三方惩罚实施的感知(被告知上一轮被第三方惩罚的人数比例)则激活了被试的描述性规范(惩罚比例高说明分配者普遍自利, 惩罚比例低说明分配者普遍合作), 因此在最后一轮去除惩罚压力时, 被试开始遵循描述性规范, 表现出从众。

4 总结与展望

心理学领域对社会规范的研究重点其实不在于社会规范本身, 而在于社会规范与人的关系。在早期静态地区分指令性规范与描述性规范的基础上, 新近研究的焦点是社会规范的动态过程, 包括社会规范的形成机制(如习得、传播、转变)以及社会规范发挥作用的影响因素。研究表明, 个体在童年早期的社会互动中就可以习得社会规范, 而成年人描述性规范的形成则是在社会网络中学习社会范畴典型范例的过程, 对现状的合理化则进一步催生了描述性规范向指令性规范的转变。在社会规范形成后, 其发挥作用会受到一系列因素的影响和制约, 个体遵守或违反社会规范都与特定的心理需要(如安全感、归属感与独特感需要)与外部环境(权力位置、惩罚机制)有关。对上述因素的不同研究细致地描述了规范发挥作用的制约机制。结合当前研究实际, 未来研究还可以从以下几方面继续探索。

4.1 对社会规范形成过程、作用过程的进一步分析

第一, 探讨指令性规范的习得路径。现有社会网络中描述性规范习得的研究和具体技术(如ALAAM)可以进一步扩展到指令性规范习得路径的研究, 探索指令性规范的习得是通过经验路径、概念路径, 还是有其他可能。第二, 探究指令性规范向描述性规范的转变。现有研究主要关注描述性规范向指令性规范的转变, 而描述性规范与指令性规范具有相容性(Eriksson et al., 2015), 那么理论上也存在指令性规范向描述性规范转换的可能性, 这种转换也有利于指令性规范的贯彻与实施, 既发挥指令性规范的强制性, 又发挥描述性规范的规范性影响作用。第三, 研究社会规范发挥作用的其它影响因素。现有研究主要关注安全感、归属感、独特感、权力感对社会规范的影响, 但是个体的需求层次丰富而多样, 未来研究还可以探索其它需求对规范的影响, 如受尊重需求与遵守社会规范之间的关系。在集体主义国家, 遵守社会规范能够得到集体的肯定和表彰, 模范遵守社会规范的人也会受到人们的尊重。因此, 我们认为对名声、名誉的看重以及受尊重的需要(如, 面子)也应该是促使人们遵守社会规范的动力之一。这或许可以部分解释当描述性规范与指令性规范发生冲突时, 为什么仍有人坚持指令性规范。权力感与社会规范的关系, 是另一个值得深入的话题。个体违规而未受处罚往往给人一种权力高的印象, 但只有通过遵守所在体系内的规范, 个体才有机会获得体系内的成功(Jost et al., 2015)。前文介绍的研究也曾提到状态性高权力与特质性高权力在遵守或违背社会规范上表现出差异(Stamkou et al., 2016)。这些研究表明, 暂时获得高权力与长期拥有高权力对遵守或违背社会规范可能会产生不同的效果。我们大胆猜测, 暂时拥有高权力能够让人产生违背社会规范的冲动, 但同时个体却很难预期到当获得以及长期拥有权力之后, 个体反而会更加约束自己、遵守规范(从而能保留和提升权力)。因此权力促使个体违规是一种自然反应, 而高权力者更遵守规范则是个体自我控制的结果。这一设想不仅可以解释权力影响遵守/违背社会规范的短期、长期效应的分离, 而且可以用来解释为什么会产生“高权力者更易违背社会规范”的刻板印象。

4.2 结合社会规范强度研究, 探讨规范性影响的作用过程

对于讨论规范性影响的作用过程, 现有研究主要关注描述性规范/指令性规范与规范遵守、违背之间的关系。描述性规范与指令性规范的划分可被看作是对社会规范进行“质”上的划分。但近年来关于社会规范强度的系列研究(Gelfand et al., 2011; Harrington & Gelfand, 2014; Roos et al., 2015)表明, 社会规范也可以从“量”的角度被构想成连续体, 两端分别为高强度社会规范和低强度社会规范, 对应于“紧文化”与“松文化”情境(卢俊等, 2017)。或许是因为有关规范强度的研究都是在文化心理学领域展开的, 所以目前尚未发现有研究探索规范的不同强度在规范产生影响过程中所起的作用。我们认为, 将社会规范的两个维度共同考虑, 或许能够产生非常有趣的研究课题。未来研究可以将规范类型与规范强度结合起来, 设计2(规范类型:描述性vs. 指令性) × 2(规范强度:松vs. 紧)的实验, 探究两种因素及其交互作用对规范认同、遵守、违背等结果变量的影响。

4.3 在文化情境下审视社会规范

虽然社会规范普遍存在于不同文化中, 但其表现形式却具有文化特异性。比如, 潜规则便是在中国文化情境中特别突显的一个议题。历史学者吴思(2001)曾通过中国史料分析了潜规则的社会影响。汪新建、吕小康(2009)从社会学以及文化心理学角度将潜规则界定为一种“惯习” (habitus), 潜规则事实上被人们遵循, 但在名义上却并不被认可。如果按照描述性规范-指令性规范框架区分, 潜规则实际可以被归于描述性规范, 而“明”规则可以被归于指令性规范。当描述性规范与指令性规范冲突时, 如果大多数个体选择遵循描述性规范而非指令性规范, 则意味着潜规则的盛行。在个体层面, Chen和Hong (2015)提出行动信念(agency belief)的概念来解释为什么个体会选择遵从与指令性规范相悖的描述性规范。持有个体主义行动信念的人们相信个体是行动的能动来源(agentic source), 个体拥有自由意志, 要对自己的行为负责; 持有集体主义行动信念的人们相信群体是行动的能动来源, 群体对个体施加巨大的影响力, 个体行为往往“身不由己”。因此, 持有集体主义行动信念的个体在面临指令性规范与描述性规范的矛盾时, 会更倾向于服从描述性规范, 从而做出从众行为。即使这些描述性规范背离了指令性规范, 他们也较少会出现道德愧疚, 因为他们把自己的选择归因为社会压力而非自身。然而, 虽然潜规则是一个有趣且具有文化重要性的概念, 但现有研究仍主要集中于理论探讨, 未来研究可以通过测量相互矛盾的描述性规范与指令性规范来考察个体对潜规则的认知, 通过操纵其他人对描述性规范的遵守程度操纵个体对潜规则是否盛行的知觉, 从而考察潜规则对于个体的心理影响。

社会规范可以被视为管窥社会现象的一面镜子。比如, “家风”属于我国的优良文化传统。关于“家风”是什么, 文化学、社会学的学者已经积累了丰富的文化资料, 但家风如何形成、习得、发展, 如何起作用, 受哪些因素的影响还鲜有心理学实证研究涉及。我们认为, 从社会规范心理学的角度切入, 家风可以被概念化为一种家庭内的规范。有关社会规范形成、习得、传播的相关研究理论和方法有助于从实证研究角度探讨家风的形成与传承; 而个体遵守或违背社会规范的相关研究则可以帮助我们思考个体何时以及为什么会遵守或违背家风。再如, 在社会转型背景下规范遵守的适应性价值也值得进一步探究。有研究者发现, 在转型期国家, 对传统规范的遵守能缓冲掉物质主义对幸福感的某些消极影响(谢天, 石双, 2016)。我们认为, 借鉴社会规范作用的影响因素研究可以进一步探明这种缓冲作用的心理机制。

总之, 近年来社会规范的研究已经从以往经典研究关注静态实质转向为对社会规范动态过程的考察。这种转向实际上是对研究对象从结构到功能认识的深化。未来研究在理论方面可以通过多变量分析、计算机模拟等特色方法继续深入探讨社会规范形成与作用的底层逻辑; 还可以在应用层面将其扩展到其他领域, 如跨文化比较、文化情境下的社会现象分析等。此外, 还应突显研究的社会价值, 如开展对于违规行为的干预研究等, 增强社会规范心理学研究的现实针对性。

致谢:

本文的最终成稿凝聚着审稿专家和编辑的心血。衷心感谢他们提出的宝贵意见和建议!

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Cultural variability in the link between environmental concern and support for environmental action

Psychological Science, 27( 10), 1331-1339.

DOI:10.1177/0956797616660078      URL     PMID:27565535      [本文引用: 1]

Abstract Research on sustainability behaviors has been based on the assumption that increasing personal concerns about the environment will increase proenvironmental action. We tested whether this assumption is more applicable to individualistic cultures than to collectivistic cultures. In Study 1, we compared 47 countries (N = 57,268) and found that they varied considerably in the degree to which environmental concern predicted support for proenvironmental action. National-level individualism explained the between-nation variability above and beyond the effects of other cultural values and independently of person-level individualism. In Study 2, we compared individualistic and collectivistic nations (United States vs. Japan; N = 251) and found culture-specific predictors of proenvironmental behavior. Environmental concern predicted environmentally friendly consumer choice among European Americans but not Japanese. For Japanese participants, perceived norms about environmental behavior predicted proenvironmental decision making. Facilitating sustainability across nations requires an understanding of how culture determines which psychological factors drive human action.

Eriksson K., Strimling P., & Coultas J. C . ( 2015).

Bidirectional associations between descriptive and injunctive norms

Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 129, 59-69.

DOI:10.1016/j.obhdp.2014.09.011      URL     [本文引用: 3]

Modern research on social norms makes an important distinction between descriptive norms (how people commonly behave) and injunctive norms (what one is morally obligated to do). Here we propose that this distinction is far from clear in the cognition of social norms. In a first study, using the implicit association test, the concepts of “common” and “moral” were found to be strongly associated. Some implications of this automatic common–moral association were investigated in a subsequent series of experiments: Our participants tended to make explicit inferences from descriptive norms to injunctive norms and vice versa; they tended to mix up descriptive and injunctive concepts in recall tasks; and frequency information influenced participants’ own moral judgments. We conclude by discussing how the common–moral association could play a role in the dynamics of social norms.

Fehr, E., & Fischbacher, U . ( 2004).

Third-party punishment and social norms

Evolution and Human Behavior, 25( 2), 63-87.

DOI:10.1016/S1090-5138(04)00005-4      URL     [本文引用: 1]

We examine the characteristics and relative strength of third-party sanctions in a series of experiments. We hypothesize that egalitarian distribution norms and cooperation norms apply in our experiments, and that third parties, whose economic payoff is unaffected by the norm violation, may be willing to enforce these norms although the enforcement is costly for them. Almost two-thirds of the third parties indeed punished the violation of the distribution norm and their punishment increased the more the norm was violated. Likewise, up to roughly 60% of the third parties punished violations of the cooperation norm. Thus, our results show that the notion of strong reciprocity extends to the sanctioning behavior of “unaffected” third parties. In addition, these experiments suggest that third-party punishment games are powerful tools for studying the characteristics and the content of social norms. Further experiments indicate that second parties, whose economic payoff is reduced by the norm violation, punish the violation much more strongly than do third parties.

Fehr, E., & Gächter, S. ( 2002).

Altruistic punishment in humans

Nature, 415( 6868), 137-140.

DOI:10.1038/415137a      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Galinsky A. D., Magee J. C., Gruenfeld D. H., Whitson J. A., & Liljenquist K. A . ( 2008).

Power reduces the press of the situation: Implications for creativity, conformity, and dissonance

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95( 6), 1450-1466.

DOI:10.1037/a0012633      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Gao W. J., Qiu L., Chiu C. Y., & Yang Y. Y . ( 2015).

Diffusion of opinions in a complex culture system: Implications for emergence of descriptive norms

Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 46( 10), 1252-1259.

DOI:10.1177/0022022115610212      URL     [本文引用: 3]

Gelfand, M. J., & Jackson, J. C . ( 2016).

From one mind to many: The emerging science of cultural norms

Current Opinion in Psychology, 8, 175-181.

DOI:10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.11.002      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Cultural norms permeate human existence. They shape our view of reality and the evolution of culture. In this review, we discuss the benefits of a cultural science that studies norms as well as values, and review research on (a) whether cultural norms are distinctly human, (b) when people will follow cultural norms, and (c) what factors shape the content and strength of cultural norms. We argue that studying cultural norms represents a critical cross-disciplinary, multi-level approach that is ideal for both understanding culture and tapping its potential for positive change.

Gelfand M. J., Raver J. L., Nishii L., Leslie L. M., Lun J., Lim B. C., .. Yamaguchi S . ( 2011).

Differences between tight and loose cultures: A 33-nation study

Science, 332( 6033), 1100-1104.

DOI:10.1126/science.1197754      URL     PMID:21617077      [本文引用: 3]

Abstract With data from 33 nations, we illustrate the differences between cultures that are tight (have many strong norms and a low tolerance of deviant behavior) versus loose (have weak social norms and a high tolerance of deviant behavior). Tightness-looseness is part of a complex, loosely integrated multilevel system that comprises distal ecological and historical threats (e.g., high population density, resource scarcity, a history of territorial conflict, and disease and environmental threats), broad versus narrow socialization in societal institutions (e.g., autocracy, media regulations), the strength of everyday recurring situations, and micro-level psychological affordances (e.g., prevention self-guides, high regulatory strength, need for structure). This research advances knowledge that can foster cross-cultural understanding in a world of increasing global interdependence and has implications for modeling cultural change.

GÖckeritz S., Schmidt M. F. H., & Tomasello M . ( 2014).

Young children's creation and transmission of social norms

Cognitive Development, 30, 81-95.

DOI:10.1016/j.cogdev.2014.01.003      URL     [本文引用: 2]

Children's lives are governed by social norms. Since Piaget, however, it has been assumed that they understand very little about how norms work. Recent studies in which children enforce social norms indicate a richer understanding, but children are still relating to pre-existing adult norms. In this study, triads of 5-year-olds worked on an instrumental task without adult guidance. Children spontaneously created social norms regarding how the game “should” be played. They transmitted these with special force (using more generic and objective language) to novices, suggesting that young children understand to some degree, the conventional nature and special force of social norms in binding all who would participate.

Harrington, J. R., & Gelfand, M. J . ( 2014).

Tightness- looseness across the 50 united states

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111( 22), 7990-7995.

DOI:10.1073/pnas.1317937111      URL     PMID:24843116      [本文引用: 2]

This research demonstrates wide variation in tightness-looseness (the strength of punishment and degree of latitude/permissiveness) at the state level in the United States, as well as its association with a variety of ecological and historical factors, psychological characteristics, and state-level outcomes. Consistent with theory and past research, ecological and man-made threats--such as a higher incidence of natural disasters, greater disease prevalence, fewer natural resources, and greater degree of external threat--predicted increased tightness at the state level. Tightness is also associated with higher trait conscientiousness and lower trait openness, as well as a wide array of outcomes at the state level. Compared with loose states, tight states have higher levels of social stability, including lowered drug and alcohol use, lower rates of homelessness, and lower social disorganization. However, tight states also have higher incarceration rates, greater discrimination and inequality, lower creativity, and lower happiness relative to loose states. In all, tightness-looseness provides a parsimonious explanation of the wide variation we see across the 50 states of the United States of America.

Jost J. T., Sterling J. L., & Langer M . ( 2015).

From “Is” to “Ought” and sometimes “Not”: Compliance with and resistance to social norms from a system justification perspective

Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 46( 10), 1287-1291.

DOI:10.1177/0022022115600268      URL     [本文引用: 2]

Kashima E. S., Halloran M., Yuki M., & Kashima Y . ( 2004).

The effects of personal and collective mortality salience on individualism: Comparing Australians and Japanese with higher and lower self-esteem

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40( 3), 384-392.

DOI:10.1016/j.jesp.2003.07.007      URL     [本文引用: 1]

The cross-cultural generality of terror management theory was examined in Australia and Japan. Based on previous research suggesting that individualism is stronger in Australia than in Japan, mortality salience was predicted to enhance individualism in Australia, but to reduce it in Japan. The results supported this prediction. Consistent with the theory, the cultural pattern of worldview defense was found only among Australians and Japanese with low self-esteem. We also found preliminary evidence that collective mortality (death of one in-group) has a greater impact than personal mortality (personal death) in Japan. Although the cultural worldview and self-esteem may serve terror management functions in both cultures, there may be differences between cultures in the type of mortality that produces the greatest levels of anxiety and the manner in which a given worldview is used to cope with anxiety about mortality.

Kashima Y., Wilson S., Lusher D., Pearson L. J., & Pearson C . ( 2013).

The acquisition of perceived descriptive norms as social category learning in social networks

Social Networks, 35( 4), 711-719.

DOI:10.1016/j.socnet.2013.06.002      URL     [本文引用: 2]

Descriptive norms—what people typically do in a certain setting—play a significant role in people's behavioural decisions. However, little is known about how people acquire descriptive norms in their community. We postulate that acquisition of descriptive norms can be construed as social category learning in social networks, where people learn social information relevant about community descriptive norms from others with whom they are associated through social network ties. We distinguish two routes to norm acquisition: experiential and conceptual. The experiential route suggests people observe the behaviours of their associates in their social networks, and infer what people typically do; the conceptual route suggests people learn about their community from what their associates say people typically do. We used a novel statistical method of autologistic actor attribute models (ALAAM) on survey responses collected by snow ball sampling in a rural city in Australia, and found that people experientially learn descriptive norms about community engagement. Implications of this finding and the limitations of the current study are discussed.

Kosic A., Kruglanski A. W., Pierro A., & Mannetti L . ( 2004).

The social cognition of immigrants’ acculturation: Effects of the need for closure and the reference group at entry

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86( 6), 796-813.

DOI:10.1037/0022-3514.86.6.796      URL     PMID:15149256      [本文引用: 1]

Three studies found support for the notion that the quality of immigrants08 acculturation to the host culture is interactively determined by these individuals08 need for cognitive closure (Kruglanski [amp] Webster, 1996) and the 09reference group00 they forge upon their arrival in the new land. If such reference group is fashioned by close social relations with the immigrants08 co-ethnics03the higher the immigrants08 need for closure the weaker their tendency to assimilate to the new culture, and the stronger their tendency to adhere to the culture of origin. By contrast, if the 09reference group00 on entry is fashioned by close relations with members of the host country03the higher their need for closure the stronger their tendency to adapt to the new culture, and the weaker their tendency to maintain the culture of origin. These findings obtained consistently across three immigrant samples in Italy, one Croatian and the two Polish, and across multiple different measures of acculturation.

Kreuzbauer R., Chiu C. Y., Lin S. D., & Bae S. H . ( 2014).

When does life satisfaction accompany relational identity signaling: A cross-cultural analysis

Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 45( 4), 646-659.

DOI:10.1177/0022022113518369      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Kruglanski A. W. ( 2004). The psychology of closed mindedness. New York, NY: Psychology Press.

[本文引用: 2]

Kwan L. Y. Y., Yap S., & Chiu C. Y . ( 2015).

Mere exposure affects perceived descriptive norms: Implications for personal preferences and trust

Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 129, 48-58.

DOI:10.1016/j.obhdp.2014.12.002      URL     [本文引用: 2]

One type of perceived descriptive norm is representations of how widely known or familiar particular entities (including artifacts, people, groups, ideas and practices, etc.) are in one’s society. These perceptions are implicated in important interpersonal, organizational and cultural processes. The authors hypothesize that these familiarity perceptions are formed in part through mere exposure—things frequently seen are assumed to be widely known. Two experimental studies provided support for this hypothesis and showed that incidental exposure to stimulus objects alters their assumed familiarity to others, without conscious processing. Furthermore, this mere exposure effect affected personal preference only when there was a strong motivation for social connectedness. In contrast, when there was a strong motivation for personal distinctiveness, the mere exposure effect on assumed familiarity to others did not affect personal preference.

Livi S., Kruglanski A. W., Pierro A., Mannetti L., & Kenny D. A . ( 2015).

Epistemic motivation and perpetuation of group culture: Effects of need for cognitive closure on trans- generational norm transmission

Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 129, 105-112.

DOI:10.1016/j.obhdp.2014.09.010      URL     [本文引用: 2]

The role of need for cognitive closure (NFCC, Kruglanski, 2004) in the transmission of a group norm is examined in three studies carried out in both experimental and natural settings. It was hypothesized that for persons high in NFCC a greater resistance to change is produced both via the urgency tendency of newcomers and the permanence tendency of old-timers; accordingly, groups composed of high need for closure individuals should exhibit greater cultural stability than groups composed of low NFCC. The first study investigated that hypothesis in a natural setting where young adults rated their health behavior and that of their parents. Consistent with our hypothesis, results of a moderated regression analysis showed that for participants high (vs. low) in dispositional NFCC the relation between parents’ and offspring behavior is stronger, implying normative continuity. The remaining two studies applied Jacobs and Campbell’s (1961) paradigm wherein group norms are induced and transmitted across generations of a laboratory microculture. In the first study, NFCC was induced by means of environmental noise whereas in the second study it was varied via group composition, consisting of participants with High vs. Low scores on the NFCC Scale. Results of both studies confirmed the hypothesis that cultures under high need for closure show a greater normative stability across generations. Moreover, the experimental studies clarify that the observed, need for closure based, stability was promoted by newcomers’ greater tendency to seize to the group norms in condition of high (versus low) NFCC.

McAuliffe K., Jordan J. J., & Warneken F . ( 2015).

Costly third-party punishment in young children

Cognition, 134, 1-10.

DOI:10.1016/j.cognition.2014.08.013      URL     PMID:25460374      [本文引用: 1]

Human adults engage in costly third-party punishment of unfair behavior, but the developmental origins of this behavior are unknown. Here we investigate costly third-party punishment in 5- and 6-year-old children. Participants were asked to accept (enact) or reject (punish) proposed allocations of resources between a pair of absent, anonymous children. In addition, we manipulated whether subjects had to pay a cost to punish proposed allocations. Experiment 1 showed that 6-year-olds (but not 5-year-olds) punished unfair proposals more than fair proposals. However, children punished less when doing so was personally costly. Thus, while sensitive to cost, they were willing to sacrifice resources to intervene against unfairness. Experiment 2 showed that 6-year-olds were less sensitive to unequal allocations when they resulted from selfishness than generosity. These findings show that costly third-party punishment of unfair behavior is present in young children, suggesting that from early in development children show a sophisticated capacity to promote fair behavior.

Morris M. W., Chiu C. Y., & Liu Z . ( 2015).

Polycultural psychology

Annual Review of Psychology, 66, 631-659.

DOI:10.1146/annurev-psych-010814-015001      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Morris, M. W., & Liu, Z . ( 2015).

Psychological functions of subjective norms: Reference groups, moralization, adherence, and defiance

Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 46( 10), 1279-1287.

DOI:10.1177/0022022115612161      URL     [本文引用: 2]

Mulder, L. B . ( 2008).

The difference between punishments and rewards in fostering moral concerns in social decision making

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44( 6), 1436-1443.

DOI:10.1016/j.jesp.2008.06.004      URL     [本文引用: 1]

In social decision making, punishing non-cooperation and rewarding cooperation may not only affect cooperation because of instrumental reasons. They may also evoke moral concerns regarding cooperation as they signal that cooperation is socially approved of and non-cooperation socially disapproved of. I argue that punishments do this to a greater extent than rewards as punishments communicate an obligatory rule and rewards communicate a voluntary rule. Indeed, the first experiment shows that, in a social dilemma, the concept of punishment increased cooperation and the concept of a reward did not. The second experiment showed that participants showed more disapproval towards an offender when there was a punishment for non-compliance than when there was a reward for compliance. These findings suggest that punishing non-cooperation more strongly foster moral concerns regarding cooperation than rewarding cooperation. Possible implications for internalizations are discussed.

Prentice, D. A., & Carranza, E . ( 2002).

What women and men should be, shouldn’t be, are allowed to be, and don’t have to be: The contents of prescriptive gender stereotypes

Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26( 4), 269-281.

DOI:10.1111/1471-6402.t01-1-00066      URL     [本文引用: 1]

This article presents a four category framework to characterize the contents of prescriptive gender stereotypes. The framework distinguishes between prescriptions and proscriptions that are intensified by virtue of one's gender, and those that are relaxed by virtue of one's gender. Two studies examined the utility of this framework for characterizing prescriptive gender stereotypes in American society (Study 1) and in the highly masculine context of Princeton University (Study 2). The results demonstrated the persistence of traditional gender prescriptions in both contexts, but also revealed distinct areas of societal vigilance and leeway for each gender. In addition, they showed that women are seen more positively, relative to societal standards, than are men. We consider the implications of this framework for research on reactions to gender stereotype deviants and sex discrimination.

Roos P., Gelfand M., Nau D., & Lun J . ( 2015).

Societal threat and cultural variation in the strength of social norms: An evolutionary basis

Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 129, 14-23.

DOI:10.1016/j.obhdp.2015.01.003      URL     [本文引用: 2]

The strengths of social norms vary considerably across cultures, yet little research has shown whether such differences have an evolutionary basis. Integrating research in cross-cultural psychology with evolutionary game theory, we show that groups that face a high degree of threat develop stronger norms for organizing social interaction, with a higher degree of norm dherence and higher punishment for deviant behavior. Conversely, groups that have little threat can afford to have weaker norms with less punishment for deviance. Our results apply to two kinds of norms: norms of cooperation, in which individuals must choose whether to cooperate (thereby benefitting everyone) or enrich themselves at the expense of others; and norms of coordination, in which there are several equally good ways for individuals to coordinate their actions, but individuals need to agree on which way to coordinate. This is the first work to show that different degrees of norm strength are evolutionarily adaptive to societal threat. Evolutionary game theoretic models of cultural adaptation may prove fruitful for exploring the causes of many other cultural differences that may be adaptive to particular ecological and historical contexts.

Savani K., Wadhwa M., Uchida Y., Ding Y., & Naidu, N. V. R . ( 2015).

When norms loom larger than the self: Susceptibility of preference-choice consistency to normative influence across cultures

Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 129, 70-79.

DOI:10.1016/j.obhdp.2014.09.001      URL     [本文引用: 1]

The present research investigated a novel account of how normative influence varies across culture—whether there exist cultural differences in the motivation to adhere to social norms even when similar norms are prevalent across cultures. Experiment 1 established that both Americans and Indians perceived that most others would disapprove of individuals who made choices primarily based on their own preferences compared to individuals who also took other factors into consideration. Experiments 2 and 3 found that when either general normative concerns or specific norms were highlighted, Indians’ preference–choice consistency shifted whereas Americans’ did not. Experiment 4 demonstrated that motivating people to act counter-normatively (rather than normatively) increased Indians’ preference–choice consistency but had no influence on Americans’. The findings indicate that even when the norm content does not differ across cultures, people from a more interdependent culture are more susceptible to normative influence than people from a more independent culture.

Stamkou E., van Kleef G. A., Homan A. C., & Galinsky A. D . ( 2016).

How norm violations shape social hierarchies: Those who stand on top block norm violators from rising up

Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 19( 5), 608-629.

DOI:10.1177/1368430216641305      URL     [本文引用: 2]

Norm violations engender both negative reactions and perceptions of power from observers. We addressed this paradox by examining whether observers’ tendency to grant power to norm followers versus norm violators is moderated by the observer’s position in the hierarchy. Because norm violations threaten the status quo, we hypothesized that individuals higher in a hierarchy (high verticality) would be less likely to grant power to norm violators compared to individuals lower in the hierarchy (low verticality). In 14 studies (Ntotal = 1,704), we measured participants’ trait verticality (sense of power, socioeconomic status, testosterone) and manipulated state verticality (power position, status, dominance). A meta-analysis revealed that higher ranked participants granted less power to norm violators than lower ranked individuals, presumably because the former support social stratification. Interestingly, these effects occurred for trait but not state verticality. Overall, negative reactions to deviants may be driven by hierarchy-maintenance motives by those in privileged positions.

van Kleef G. A., Homan A. C., Finkenauer C., Blaker N. M., & Heerdink M. W . ( 2012).

Prosocial norm violations fuel power affordance

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48( 4), 937-942.

DOI:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.02.022      URL     [本文引用: 1]

The question of what makes people rise to power has long puzzled social scientists. Here we examined the novel hypothesis that power is afforded to individuals who exhibit prosocial norm violations .e., breaking rules for the benefit of others. Three experiments using different methods provide support for this idea. Individuals who deliberately ignored a prohibition to tilt a bus chair (Study 1; scenario) or to close a window (Study 2; film clip) were afforded more power than individuals who obeyed the rules, but only when the norm violation benefited others (i.e., by giving them more leg space or fresh air). Study 2 further showed that this effect was mediated by perceived social engagement, which was highest among prosocial norm violators. In Study 3 (face-to-face), a confederate who stole coffee from the experimenter's desk was afforded more power than a confederate who took coffee upon invitation, but only when he also offered coffee to the participant. We discuss implications for hierarchy formation, morality, and social engagement.

van Kleef G. A., Homan A. C., Finkenauer C., Gündemir S., & Stamkou E . ( 2011).

Breaking the rules to rise to power: How norm violators gain power in the eyes of others

Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2( 5), 500-507.

DOI:10.1177/1948550611398416      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Wan, C . ( 2015).

Understanding cultural identification through intersubjective cultural representation

Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 46( 10), 1267-1272.

DOI:10.1177/0022022115610213      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Intersubjective cultural representation refers to a collective’s common representation of a culture. Such representation provides a meaningful basis for individuals to develop identification with the culture. Specifically, the more an individual’s personal values are aligned with values intersubjectively represented to be important to a culture, the more strongly the individual would identify with the culture. Consideration of the role of intersubjective representation in cultural identification has implications for future research on the development of cultural identity, especially in multicultural contexts.

Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M . ( 2013).

The emergence of contingent reciprocity in young children

Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 116( 2), 338-350.

DOI:10.1016/j.jecp.2013.06.002      URL     PMID:23917162      [本文引用: 1]

Abstract Contingent reciprocity is important in theories of the evolution of human cooperation, but it has been very little studied in ontogeny. We gave 2- and 3-year-old children the opportunity to either help or share with a partner after that partner either had or had not previously helped or shared with the children. Previous helping did not influence children's helping. In contrast, previous sharing by the partner led to greater sharing in 3-year-olds but not in 2-year-olds. These results do not support theories claiming either that reciprocity is fundamental to the origins of children's prosocial behavior or that it is irrelevant. Instead, they support an account in which children's prosocial behavior emerges spontaneously but is later mediated by reciprocity. Copyright 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Williams, A., & Moore, C . ( 2016).

A longitudinal exploration of advantageous and disadvantageous inequality aversion in children

Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 152, 294-306.

DOI:10.1016/j.jecp.2016.07.006      URL     PMID:27632711      [本文引用: 2]

Unfairness in resource allocation situations can present itself in two ways, with one person receiving either less or more than another person. Research suggests that aversion to situations of disadvantageous inequality (DI), in which a child receives less than a peer, develops differently from aversion to advantageous inequality (AI), in which a child receives more than a partner. However, little is known about how AI aversion and DI aversion develop as well as how the relationship between the two may change over time. In this short-term longitudinal study, two forms of AI and DI (in which equality was either costly or not costly) were examined. Using a forced choice resource allocation task, children decision making was compared across three time points: 4.5, 5.0, and 5.5 years of age. In both AI and DI situations, costly and no-cost trials were correlated at each time point, establishing construct validity within trial types. A positive relationship (indicating a preference for fairness) was observed between AI and DI at Time 1, whereas no relationships were observed later in development. Finally, correlations across all time points were observed in AI trials and grew stronger with age, whereas only one relationship was observed (between Time 1 and Time 2) in DI trials. Taken together, these results suggest that decision making in situations of AI and DI develops differently and that the relationship between them changes with age. Importantly, this research suggests that motivations for fairness and equality differ depending on context, and an undifferentiated aversion to inequality is not primarily guiding decision making throughout childhood.

Xie W. W., Ho B., Meier S., & Zhou X. Y . ( 2017).

Rank reversal aversion inhibits redistribution across societies

Nature Human Behavior, 1( 8), 0142.

DOI:10.1038/s41562-017-0142      URL     [本文引用: 1]

react-text: 434 This study investigated the sense of community among residents in the Spanish city of Malaga and the relationship between the components of the sense of community and the quality of life. Given that the phenomenon of immigration is a fact of city life, the authors examine how such coexistence could affect the sense of community and the quality of life as perceived by the residents in different... /react-text react-text: 435 /react-text [Show full abstract]

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