ISSN 1671-3710
CN 11-4766/R
主办:中国科学院心理研究所
出版:科学出版社

心理科学进展, 2018, 26(7): 1204-1212 doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2018.01204

研究前沿

信任的遗传基础:来自基因的证据

董妍,, 于晓琪, 李哲能

中国人民大学心理学系, 北京 100872

The genetic basic of trust: Evidence from genes

DONG Yan,, YU Xiaoqi, LI Zheneng

Department of psychology, Renmin University of China, Beijing 100872, China

通讯作者: 董妍, E-mail:dong8958@126.com

收稿日期: 2017-08-22   网络出版日期: 2018-07-15

基金资助: 国家自然科学基金青年项目(31500905)

Received: 2017-08-22   Online: 2018-07-15

Fund supported: (31500905)

摘要

信任主要受到生物学因素和环境因素的共同影响。采用定量与分子遗传学的研究发现, 与信任相关的基因有催产素受体基因、5-羟色胺转运体基因、抗利尿素1a受体基因。从生物学内部因素来看, 基因影响荷尔蒙的产生和释放, 荷尔蒙和特定脑区的活动又会影响信任; 从基因与环境的相互作用理论来看, 基因在环境与信任之间可能起到了调节作用。未来有必要开展多层面的研究, 从更加系统的视角来看待信任的发生发展机制, 进一步确认基因在信任的遗传机制中所起到的作用。

关键词: 信任; 催产素受体基因; 5-羟色胺转运体基因; 抗利尿素1a受体基因

Abstract

Trust behavior is mainly influenced by biological and environmental factors. Through quantitative or molecular genetic studies, researchers found that genes associated with trust include oxytocin receptor genes, serotonin transporter genes, and AVPR1A gene. From a biological perspective, genes affect the production and release of hormones, while the activities of hormones and specific brain regions affect trust. From gene-environment interaction theory, genes may play a moderating role between the environment and trust behaviors. An important direction for future research is to investigate the mechanism of the occurrence and development of trust from a more integrated and systematic perspective, and to further confirm the genetic role in the genetic mechanism of trust.

Keywords: trust; oxytocin receptor gene; serotonin transporter gene; AVPR1A gene

PDF (504KB) 元数据 多维度评价 相关文章 导出 EndNote| Ris| Bibtex  收藏本文

本文引用格式

董妍, 于晓琪, 李哲能. 信任的遗传基础:来自基因的证据 . 心理科学进展, 2018, 26(7): 1204-1212 doi:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2018.01204

DONG Yan, YU Xiaoqi, LI Zheneng. The genetic basic of trust: Evidence from genes. Advances in Psychological Science, 2018, 26(7): 1204-1212 doi:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2018.01204

1 引言

信任作为一种普遍存在的亲社会行为, 渗透于诸多社会关系与社会活动中, 它既是人与人之间建立持久稳固关系的基石, 也是保证社会有序运行的粘合剂。来自心理学、社会学、经济学、医学、政治学以及信息科学等多个学科的研究发现, 高水平的信任对个体和群体有多方面的积极作用(刘国芳, 林崇德, 2013; 张宁, 张雨青, 吴坎坎, 2011; Yan, Dong, Niemi, & Yu, 2013)。因此, 近年来, 研究者们更关心哪些因素影响了信任, 以及如何提高信任的水平。

1.1 信任的概念与测量方法

早期研究者对信任的理解主要聚焦在信任在心理发展、个体差异及人际行为中起到的作用上。比如Erikson (1993)认为信任是“儿童身份发展的基础,是对世界普遍的感觉和行为, 是积极自尊和一般心理健康的重要前提”。后来, 心理学家Rotter将信任定义为个体对其他个体信守承诺的一般预期(Rotter, 1967)。近几年来, 研究者们对信任达成了比较一致的看法, 认为信任“是一种心理状态, 这种心理状态包括个体对他人意图及行为产生的积极预期, 并且即使明知这种预期可能会给个体带来伤害也在所不惜” (史燕伟, 徐富明, 罗教讲, 李燕, 刘程浩, 2015; Haselhuhn, Kennedy, Kray, van Zant, & Schweitzer, 2015; Rousseau, Sitkin, Burt, & Camerer, 1998)。信任一般分为人际信任和社会信任两种。人际信任即个体对他人的信任, 主要表现在两个方面。一方面表现为个体先前的一种信任倾向, 这受个体人格特点和成长经历的影响; 另一方面, 人际信任还表现为个体对被信任者可信度的乐观期望(Robbins, 2016)。对于人际信任的测量, 主要采用问卷法和实验法。问卷法中研究者通常采用Johnson-George和Swap (1982)编制的特定人际信任量表(Specific Interpersonal Trust Scale)、Rempel等人编制的信任量表(Rempel, Ross, & Holmes, 2001)等。研究人际信任的实验法最为典型的范式是信任游戏范式(trust game)。经典的信任博弈包括两个游戏者:投资人(A)和信托人(B), 投资人拥有一定的金钱(X), 然后由其决定从中抽取一部分金额x给信托人, 双方都清楚信托人将收到A投资的三倍金额3x, 随后B将决定从获得的金额中抽取一定的金额返还给投资人。在这一实验中, 投资人给信托人的金额代表信任行为(trust), 信托人返还给投资人的金额比例代表着互惠行为(reciprocity)或者称为可信度(trustworthiness) (Cesarini et al., 2008)。

社会信任是一种普遍信任, 是对陌生人或社会上大多数人的信任(刘明明, 2016)。实际上, 社会信任还包括对各种社会制度的信任以及对各种社会职业群体的信任, 比如对政府、媒体、企业、公益组织的信任以及对医生、公务员、警察、教师等职业群体的信任(Huhe, Chen, & Tang, 2015; Robbins, 2016)。因此, 社会信任反映了人们对社会、对国家、对政府、对其他人的信赖程度。社会信任的测量主要采用问卷法, 常用Rotter (1967)人际信任量表(Interpersonal Trust Scales, ITS)、日本学者Yamagishi和Yamagishi (1994)在ITS的基础上发展出来的一般信任量表(General Trust Scale, GTS), 以及世界价值观调查(World Values Survey)中对一般信任的测量量表等。

1.2 信任的影响因素

研究者从不同的视角对影响信任的因素进行了总结和梳理。一方面, 从宏观和微观两个视角来看(何劭玥, 于晓琪, 董妍, 2016), 社会文化、社会制度和社会变迁等宏观因素决定了社会信任的实质; 个人客观因素、生活经历和生活环境等微观因素也会影响社会信任的表现。另一方面, 从先天遗传和后天环境两个视角来看(Johnson, 2007), 信任不仅受到一些生物学因素的影响, 如催产素(oxytocin, OXT) (靳宇倡, 吴静, 2016; Li et al., 2015)、催产素受体基因(OXTR) (Krueger et al., 2012)、脑(如眶额叶皮层等) (Dimoka, 2010)等; 也会受到一些环境因素的影响(Kong, 2016), 如经济水平、气候环境等。综合来看, 目前多数学者支持基因-环境交互作用论(Manuck & McCaffery, 2014), 即认为信任受到遗传和环境的共同影响。如Johnson (2007)就曾指出人类行为(包括信任行为)是生物和环境因素共同作用的结果。在综合以往研究的基础上, Riedl和Javor (2012)提出了行为、生物与环境模型(model of behavior, biology, and environment)用以解释信任与生物学因素和环境因素之间的关系。该模型认为, 人类的信任行为受到生物学因素(基因、荷尔蒙、大脑)以及环境因素(社会化、文化、经验、任务要求等)的共同影响, 各生物学因素之间也是相互影响的(Riedl & Javor, 2012)。

本文通过对近年来相关文献的梳理, 试图从基因这一视角进一步揭示信任的遗传基础, 并对基因与信任的未来研究提出展望。

2 开展信任基因水平研究的主要方法

目前开展基因水平的研究有两种主要的方法:定量遗传学研究和分子遗传学研究(Johnson, 2007; Riedl & Javor, 2012)。

2.1 定量遗传学研究

定量遗传学是早期行为遗传学的主要研究方法。在信任的定量遗传学研究中, 常用家庭连锁分析法(linkage analysis in family studies)。该方法是通过比较住在一起的家庭成员中一个或者多个属性上的相似性, 如谱系研究、双生子研究、领养研究等, 来区分遗传和环境的作用(刘建榕, 2007)。目前还未检索到有研究者采用收养研究探究信任的遗传基础, 但有研究者采用双生子范式对此问题进行了探究。Cesarini等(2008)曾以同卵双生子和异卵双生子为研究对象, 采用行为经济学中的信任游戏范式(trust game), 观察他们实际信任行为的差异。结果发现, 信任(trust)的遗传可能性在10% (瑞典)~20%(美国)之间, 可信度(trustworthiness)的遗传可能性在17% (美国) ~ 18% (瑞典)之间, 这说明遗传因素确实会影响个体的信任行为。此外, 有研究者使用问卷法去测量同卵双生子以及异卵双生子的信任信念, 把遗传和环境对信任的影响分解开, 将遗传的影响视为叠加效应, 代表所有独立遗传效应的总和。将所有非遗传决定的变异归因于环境, 并将其进一步细分为“共享的共同环境”的影响, 以及“非共享的独特环境”的影响。共同环境影响包括在双胞胎中共享的所有经历, 如家庭住房、父母收入和家庭规模; 独特的环境影响包括双胞胎中每个人独有的经历, 如配偶的影响、职场经历和父母给的不同待遇。结构方程模型(SEM)分析的结果显示, 信任量表得分的大部分变异可以被基因所解释, 遗传对信任的影响可以占到66% (Sturgis et al., 2010)。这些发现使研究者开始质疑“信任是在生命初期家庭社会化的过程中逐渐产生的”这一观点, 并逐渐注意到基因在信任中起到的重要作用。

近期, 采用双生子定量研究范式的研究发现, 基因确实能在一定程度上解释人们的信任行为。由于同卵双生子(MZ)在遗传上相同且具有相同的基因(认知能力、人格特质)、相同的成长环境(家庭因素), 因此, 通过将同卵双生子的学业成就差异和社会信任的双胞胎内差异相关联, 就可估计出教育与社会信任之间的关系。研究者采用受教育年限、是否上过大学的指标代表学业成就, 使用问卷法调查社会信任, 回归分析的结果表明, 学业成就对社会信任的影响实际上与基因密切相关, 基因能解释学业成就对社会信任影响的40% (Oskarsson, Dinesen, Dawes, Johannesson, & Magnusson, 2017)。同样的结果在之前的研究中也得到了印证。如有研究者使用问卷法测量, 发现同卵双胞胎的社会信任及其心理特性之间的相关显著高于异卵双胞胎, 即这些相关很大一部分可由遗传因素来解释。遗传和环境的双变量Cholesky分解结果表明, 在这些心理特性对社会信任的影响中, 遗传的作用约为30% (Oskarsson, Dawes, Johannesson, & Magnusson, 2012)。这些研究均表明, 基因作为一种重要的遗传因素确实与信任相关。

采用双生子的研究范式, 研究者初步揭示了信任遗传的可能性, 以及基因能够在多大程度上解释信任水平上的差异。然而, 目前为止, 该领域并未发现有研究者采用收养研究范式考察基因与环境对信任的影响。究竟基因与信任有何直接关联?哪些基因与信任有关?解答这些问题还需要分子遗传学方面的研究。

2.2 分子遗传学研究

分子遗传学是分子水平的研究, 它可以解释生物的遗传变异机制。分子遗传学多用基因敲出/入、敲低/高等动物模型直接观察基因的功能, 目前也有将基因敲低/高方法运用于人类的相关研究, 但多属于疾病治疗研究(刘贝贝, 张秀芬, 高丹凤, 郭子健, 李莉华, 2017; 杨侠等, 2017), 目前, 尚未发现有采用此类方法考察人类信任行为与基因之间关系的研究。有研究者采用候选基因关联研究法(candidate gene association studies), 从分子遗传学的角度找到了基因对信任影响的证据, 如Skuse和Gallagher (2011)发现, 5-羟色胺能够使抗利尿激素受体反应迟钝, 从而增加趋近和信任行为。还有研究者对被试的OXTR基因进行扫描, 发现体内含有某一种催产素受体基因变异形式的被试表现出了更多的信任行为(Reuter et al., 2009)。此外, 研究还发现抗利尿激素1a受体(AVPR1A)基因启动子区的变异可预测利他行为(Avinun et al., 2011), 而利他与仁慈(可信度的一个维度)之间存在强相关, 研究者认为这也证明信任可能在一定程度上与该基因有关(Mayer, Davis, & Schoormanal, 1995)。

由此可见, 采用分子遗传学研究, 可以清晰地揭示哪些基因以及基因的哪些变异与信任有关, 是更加直接有效的方法。然而, 将该方法引入心理学领域并得到广泛应用, 还需要一定的时间。分子遗传学涉及许多生物学相关知识, 需要一定的实验条件和实验技术的支持, 并注重多学科的合作, 尤其是和生物学、医学领域的合作。在这一领域中, 各种前沿方法和技术手段也层出不穷, 需要时刻关注相关实验技术的新动态。此外, 随着基因检测的兴起, 目前市场上涌现出大批检测公司, 检测质量良莠不齐。这些都是未来使用分子遗传学方法可能面临的挑战。

3 与信任有关的基因

近年来, 基因与信任的关系受到广泛关注, 人们发现了一些与信任有关的基因, 如OXTR基因、5-羟色胺转运体基因启动子区(5-HTTLPR)S等位基因、AVPR1A基因等, 并对此展开了一系列研究。

3.1 催产素受体基因

催产素是神经肽的一种, 它能影响人类的社会行为, 尤其是亲社会行为(如分娩、哺乳、亲子依恋、择偶等) (Riedl & Javor, 2012)。先前的研究已经表明, OXT也与人类的信任行为有关(Li et al., 2015; Theodoridou, Rowe, Penton-Voak, & Rogers, 2009)。实际上, 催产素受体基因也会影响催产素的产生和释放, 它们一同作用于特定脑区, 并对信任行为产生影响。

人类催产素受体基因在染色体3p25上, 它的长度大约为19kb。催产素受体基因有多种单核苷酸多态性(single nucleotide polymorphism, SNP), 并且在不同的SNP 位点上有着不同的基因型(吴南, 苏彦捷, 2012; Israel et al., 2009; Lucht et al., 2009), 如在rs53576、rs237887、rs237897、rs7632287等位点上, 表现为AG、AA和GG; 在rs2254298、rs2268491、rs2268493、rs4686302、rs13316193等位点上, 表现为CT、CC和TT; 在rs237885、rs1042778等位点上, 则表现为GT、GG和TT。

有跨文化研究表明, 在不同地区的人群中OXTR位点的基因型的分布可能存在差异, 即催产素受体基因与信任关联, 且与环境之间存在交互作用。如在rs53576位点上, AA型在韩国人群中分布较多, 而GG型在美国人群中分布较多(Kim et al., 2010)。还有研究者以日本被试群体进行了研究, 发现在rs53576等位点上, 虽然催产素受体基因的多态性对女性的信任水平没有影响, 但却在男性中发现了显著差异。GG型男性比AA型男性明显更易信任他人, 具有更高的态度和行为信任, AG型男性的态度和行为信任介于GG型和AA型之间(Nishina, Takagishi, Inoue-Murayama, Takahashi, & Yamagishi, 2015)。而GG型基因对信任水平的提升作用也可以推广到其他亚洲群体(Wu et al., 2005)。这些证据都表明OXTR基因与信任有关, 且OXTR基因对信任的影响也有可能存在性别差异。

也有学者使用基因检测的方式, 发现了催产素受体基因与信任相关的证据。研究者对参加信任游戏的被试进行催产素受体基因扫描(Reuter et al., 2009), 结果发现体内含有某一种催产素受体基因变异形式的被试表现出了更多的信任行为。这说明催产素受体基因与信任有关。此外, 关于催产素受体基因多态性同信任之间的关系, 神经影像学的研究也提供了一些证据。Tost等(2010)使用通道成像中间表型法(multimodal imaging intermediate phenotype approach)发现, 在rs53576位点上, OXTR基因的基因型不仅能够影响大脑结构功能, 还能够影响个体间的人格差异。如就下丘脑灰质体积而言, A型个体明显大于G型个体; 情绪面孔识别任务、信任游戏结果也表明, GG型个体比AA型个体表现出更强的杏仁核活动, 而在此类任务中杏仁核激活程度与个体的奖赏依赖(与信任有关)存在相关, 相较于AA型个体, GG型个体的奖赏依赖得分更高, 并表现出更多的信任行为。这表明催产素受体基因的变异能够预测大脑结构与功能、以及个体间的信任差异。还有学者通过多聚酶链反应(PCR)进行基因分型, 并发现OXTR基因中rs53576位点的常见遗传变异与信任行为有关, 携带G等位基因(GG)的个体比A等位基因携带者(AA/AG)显示出更多的信任行为(Krueger et al., 2012)。虽然, 许多研究已经发现OXTR基因与信任相关, 然而, 也有一些不支持催产素受体基因与信任相关的研究证据。Apicella等(2010)在以瑞典双胞胎为被试的研究(N = 684)中没能成功重复Kruger等人的发现。并且, 研究还发现, 除rs53576位点外, 另外9个与催产素有关的SNP位点均和被试在信任游戏中的行为无关。Benjamin等(2012)的一项大样本(N = 9,836)全基因组关联研究的结果表明, 未发现催产素受体基因的SNPs与社会行为之间的稳定相关。确有研究证实了遗传因素可以在很大程度上解释个体的经济行为(包括信任)多样性, 但不可忽略的是, 整个人类基因组中没有任何一个单独的SNP可以解释任何性状变异的1.25%以上。Benjamin等(2012)认为, 大多数已发表的候选基因研究显然检验功效都不够大, 几乎可以肯定是错误的。因此, 对于催产素受体基因是否与信任相关, 目前学者们仍抱有不一样的观点, 值得我们进一步探究。

3.2 5-羟色胺转运体基因启动子区S等位基因与环境的作用

5-羟色胺(Serotonin)是一种重要的调节情绪与认知过程以及其他脑功能的神经递质(Savitz & Ramesar, 2004)。一些与5-羟色胺有关的研究表明5-羟色胺与信任之间存在相关关系(Field, Grizzle, Scafidi, & Schanberg, 1996; Skuse & Gallagher, 2011)。作为一种神经递质, 5-羟色胺的产生和释放是受5-羟色胺转运体基因调控的。5-HTTLPR是一个有着短等位基因(S)和长等位基因(L)的多态区域, 这些等位基因与该基因不同的功能表现有关(Lesch et al., 1996)。5-HTTLPR的等位基因(SS / SL)多态性使个体倾向于注意负面的刺激和情绪(Fox, Ridgewell, & Ashwin, 2009), 他们更易产生恐惧性条件反射(Lonsdorf et al., 2009)和神经质(Sen, Burmeister, & Ghosh, 2004)。相较于缺少S等位基因的个体, 拥有S等位基因的人还更倾向于规避财务风险(Kuhnen & Chiao, 2009), 并且在应对消极经历时更易产生抑郁和焦虑情绪(Karg, Burmeister, Shedden, & Sen, 2011)。上述这些因素是信任的风险预测因子, 因此, 研究者认为5-HTTLPR的等位基因与信任之间也存在着密切联系, 并开展了实证研究(Kong, 2014, 2015, 2016)。Kong (2014, 2015, 2016)主要结合世界价值观的调查数据、世界各国概况(CIA)、世界银行提供的GDP均值数据、各大网站及许多他人相关研究(Minkov, Blagoev, & Bond, 2015; van de Vliert & Postmes, 2014), 考察了5-HTTLPR的S等位基因与信任之间的关联。结果发现, 5-HTTLPR的S等位基因在环境与信任之间存在调节作用。

3.3 抗利尿素1a受体基因

抗利尿素(AVP)与催产素一样, 可以影响人类的社会行为(Heinrichs & Domes, 2008), 然而, AVP主要与一系列非亲社会行为有关:进攻、侵略、强化应激反应(Donaldson & Young, 2008; Heinrichs & Domes, 2008), 因此, 研究者假设AVP与回避和不信任行为相联系, 并对此展开了研究。有关信任的神经生物学研究已经调查了活性AVP对与社交相关的人类面部反应的影响(Thompson, George, Walton, Orr, & Benson, 2006; Thompson, Gupta, Miller, Mills, & Orr, 2004)。与此相一致的发现是, AVP与警惕和焦虑水平的提高有关(Carter, 2007; Murgatroyd et al., 2004)。

抗利尿激素通过抗利尿激素1a受体(AVPR1A)基因对人类的社会行为产生重要影响。具体来看, AVPR1A基因上RS3等位点的启动子区多态性与人类的社会行为有关(Kreek, Zhou, & Levran, 2011)。有证据表明AVPR1A基因启动子区长度的变异能够预测利他行为(Riedl & Javor, 2012); 此外, 有研究发现RS3的长等位基因与较高的经济利他水平有关(Knafo et al., 2008); Skuse和Gallagher (2011)发现遗传能影响社会认知, 而社会认知与信任密切相关(Fehr, 2009); 还有对学龄前儿童的研究发现, 特定的RS3启动子区334bp等位基因的多态性与利他行为有关(Avinun et al., 2011)。而利他与仁慈(可信的一个影响因素)密切相关(Mayer et al., 1995), 这在一定程度上说明人类的信任行为可能与该基因有关。

4 基因影响信任的相关机制

目前, 研究者通过实证研究已经发现了特定基因与信任相关。那么, 这些基因如何对信任起作用, 其中的作用机制又是什么?研究者从不同的视角对此进行了解释。从生物学内部因素来看, 基因影响荷尔蒙的产生和释放, 荷尔蒙和特定脑区的活动又会影响信任(Riedl & Javor, 2012); 从基因与环境的相互作用理论来看, 基因在环境与信任行为之间可能起到了调节作用(Kong, 2014, 2015, 2016)。

4.1 信任的生物学概念模型

从影响信任的生物学内部因素来看, Riedl和Javor (2012)提出了信任的生物学概念模型(见图1), 在这一模型中信任主要指人际信任。两位作者认为, OXTR基因和AVPR1A基因影响两种荷尔蒙的产生, 即OXT (Cesarini et al., 2008; Reuter et al., 2009)和AVP (Knafo et al., 2008), 二者存在拮抗作用(Donaldson & Young, 2008), 较高水平的OXT会导致信任行为, 但高水平的AVP通常会导致不信任行为(Heinrichs & Domes, 2008; Heinrichs, Von Dawans, & Domes, 2009)。该模型也指出, 大脑的特定区域(纹状体、前额叶皮质和边缘系统)的活动也能够影响信任行为。例如, 一些大脑成像实验发现纹状体和其他与奖励有关的脑区(如丘脑)在信任相关任务中被激活, 即激活纹状体会导致信任行为(Zak, 2011)。下丘脑的室旁核和视上核能够合成OXT (Zak & Fakhar, 2006), 而OXT能减少信任游戏时的恐惧反应, 减少杏仁核和连接的脑干的效应器位点的激活, 从而提高被试在面临被背叛风险时的信任水平(Baumgartner, Heinrichs, Vonlanthen, Fischbacher, & Fehr, 2008)。由此可见, 基因可能并非直接作用于信任, 更可能是荷尔蒙和大脑的活动在基因与信任之间起到了中介作用, 这一模型还有待进一步的检验。

图1

图1   信任的生物学概念模型(修改自Riedl & Javor, 2012)


4.2 社会信任的基因-气候经济模型

Kong (2014)依据基因与环境相互作用的理论, 建立了气候经济模型, 并在此基础上进一步提出了社会信任的基因-气候经济模型(Kong, 2016) (见图2), 该模型认为5-HTTLPR的S等位基因在气候-经济环境对信任的影响中起调节作用, 它使个体倾向于避免不确定性, 并能够降低社会信任水平, 这种避免不确定性的调节作用只出现于5-HTTLPR的S等位基因存在率低的社会中, 在5-HTTLPR的S等位基因存在率高的社会中则不会出现。该模型指出了气候经济因素起作用的边界效应, 解释了在5-HTTLPR的S等位基因存在率不同的社会中, 气候经济环境如何对社会信任产生影响。

图2

图2   社会信任的基因-气候经济模型


4.3 社会信任的基因-民主环境模型

Kong (2015)还在基因-环境交互作用模型的基础上, 指出5-HTTLPR的S等位基因在国家民主情况与信任的关系中起着调节作用(见图3)。Minkov等(2015)也认为, 虽然民主(环境因素)有助于提高社会信任, 但这种积极的影响却是由5-HTTLPR的S等位基因(遗传因素)参与调节的。因此, 民主和信任存在正相关, 且相较于S等位基因存在率低的社会, S等位基因存在率较高的社会中, 个体更倾向于悲观地看待民主环境与社会信任之间的联系, 也更不愿意相信他人, 即S等位基因的广泛存在会削弱民主和信任间的正相关关系。也就是说, 5-HTTLPR的S等位基因与环境之间也存在交互作用, 共同影响人们的信任水平。

图3

图3   社会信任的基因-民主环境模型


5 研究问题与研究展望

虽然, 随着分子生物学研究水平的提升以及研究者对基因水平研究的重视, 现有研究已经揭示OXTR基因(吴南, 苏彦捷, 2012; Krueger et al., 2012)与5-HTTLPR的S等位基因(Skuse & Gallagher, 2011)等与信任有关。但是, 现有研究还有许多不足之处, 如在定量研究中, 同卵双生子之间的相似性, 可能通过其他变量, 间接地影响着双生子信任习惯的形成。因而同卵双生子研究作为基因解释能力的标志, 只有参考价值, 而不能作为定论。这表明, 基因与信任之间的关系, 一定远比目前所发现的结果更为复杂。因此, 未来应着眼于更多层面的整合研究, 以进一步揭示基因与信任的关系。

5.1 基因、激素与脑功能的整合研究

从生物学视角来看, 基因、激素与脑功能是紧密结合在一起对个体的心理产生影响的。激素分泌的水平取决于大脑的功能, 激素能够发挥作用, 又决定于是否具有恰当的该激素的受体基因; 同时, 个体的遗传基因也会影响激素的分泌水平及脑功能(Riedl & Javor, 2012)。因此, 抛开激素水平与脑功能, 单独考察基因与信任的关系并不是十分恰当和适宜的。可见, 限于研究范式和研究手段的限制, 仅从基因这一视角来考察信任的影响因素只能是一种权宜之计。未来的研究, 应进一步提高研究手段与研究方法, 联合激素水平与脑功能研究, 共同揭示基因与信任之间的关系。

5.2 基因与环境的整合研究

从更为广阔的视角来看, 基因与环境之间存在交互作用已经成为不争的事实。然而, 目前仅有Kong (2014, 2015, 2016)等几位少数学者在对信任的研究中关注了这一问题。从仅有的研究来看, 一个国家的经济情况、气候情况以及民主情况与民众的基因类型或基因多态性会有交互作用, 并影响着群体的信任水平。然而, 影响信任的环境因素还有很多, 例如社会化、文化、个体经验、生活环境、任务要求等(Dinesen, 2012; Riedl & Javor, 2012)。这些因素是否也与基因存在交互作用, 以及这些环境因素与哪些基因存在交互作用并共同影响信任, 还需要有更多的研究提供进一步的证据。

一言以蔽之, 信任是一个广泛的概念, 虽然, 各个学科领域已有大量关于信任的研究, 但是, 有关信任形成机制的探讨还需受到进一步的关注。目前多数学者支持基因-环境交互作用论(Manuck & McCaffery, 2014), 即认为信任受到遗传和环境的共同影响(Johnson, 2007; Riedl & Javor, 2012)。未来研究者们可进一步运用定量和关联遗传学研究, 以及分子遗传学研究方法, 确认基因在信任的遗传机制中所起到的作用。也有必要开展多层面的研究, 从而以更加系统和整合的视角来看待信任的发生发展机制。

一言以蔽之, 信任是一个广泛的概念, 虽然, 各个学科领域已有大量关于信任的研究, 但是, 有关信任形成机制的探讨还需受到进一步的关注。目前多数学者支持基因-环境交互作用论(Manuck & McCaffery, 2014), 即认为信任受到遗传和环境的共同影响(Johnson, 2007; Riedl & Javor, 2012)。未来研究者们可进一步运用定量和关联遗传学研究, 以及分子遗传学研究方法, 确认基因在信任的遗传机制中所起到的作用。也有必要开展多层面的研究, 从而以更加系统和整合的视角来看待信任的发生发展机制。

参考文献

何劭玥, 于晓琪, 董妍 . ( 2016 -08-17).

从整体视角提高社会信任

中国社会科学报, p6.

[本文引用: 1]

靳宇倡, 吴静 . ( 2016).

催产素对情绪识别的影响及其机制

心理科学进展, 24( 6), 934-945.

DOI:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2016.00934      URL     [本文引用: 1]

催产素(oxytocin)被称为“社会键(social bonds)荷尔蒙”,时刻影响着社会行为和认知,其中包括情绪识别。目前,关于催产素对情绪识别的影响主要有3种观点:(1)催产素选择性地促进个体对积极情绪的识别、减慢对消极情绪的识别;(2)催产素选择性地增强对消极情绪的识别;(3)催产素提高对所有情绪的识别,与情绪效价无关。催产素影响情绪识别神经机制的研究主要集中在3个方面:情绪效价、性别差异和精神疾病。此外,还运用社会显著假说解释催产素对情绪识别的作用。催产素可能对情绪识别障碍类精神疾病有潜在的治疗效果,未来的研究应深入探究催产素与情绪效价的关系,考虑性别等个体因素的影响,进一步探讨催产素的临床应用并拓展研究范围。

刘贝贝, 张秀芬, 高丹凤, 郭子健, 李莉华 . ( 2017).

Med19基因敲减增加乳腺癌细胞化疗敏感性及其可能的机制

中国肿瘤生物治疗杂志, 24( 4), 380-388.

[本文引用: 1]

刘国芳, 林崇德 . ( 2013).

构建信任指数建设和谐社会

北京师范大学学报(社会科学版), ( 1), 25-32.

URL     [本文引用: 1]

中国社会历来重视信任,社会信任度也较高,然而,一些研究显示,近些年来中国社会的信任出现了一定的下降趋势。鉴于信任对经济发展和社会和谐的重要作用,必须警惕社会信任的下降,并努力提高社会信任度,这就需要对社会的信任现状有清晰的了解,而现有研究由于样本、信任对象等的局限性并不足以完整反映中国社会的信任状况,这就成为构建中国社会信任指数的必要性和紧迫性所在。要构建中国社会的信任指数,需要对中国社会的信任进行全面考察,并考虑到社会上存在不同类型的信任、信任有不同的交往对象、信任的程度和模式是动态变化的等,以及社会主流价值观、政府行为等对信任的重要影响。

刘建榕 . ( 2007).

从行为遗传学的发展再看人类心理发展

福建师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版), ( 2), 142-145.

DOI:10.3969/j.issn.1000-5285.2007.02.023      URL     [本文引用: 1]

心理发展中的遗传和环境效应问题是发展心理学中的一个重要理论问题.笔者从行为遗传学的角度对心理发展进行了解释,并提供了目前行为遗传学方面的研究证据.在此基础上重申,遗传和环境相互作用共同决定个体心理发展,遗传是发展的基石,环境的决定作用是在这一基石所确定的潜在范围内有选择地进行着;不能因为行为遗传学的研究成果就简单抹杀了环境的作用,而应正确对待基因和环境的效应,在对个体行为进行干预时必须首先考虑到个体的遗传特性,在其遗传特性的基础上施以相应的环境影响,力求在个体遗传特性与环境影响之间达到最佳的拟合.

刘明明 . ( 2016).

社会信任对公众主观幸福感的影响研究

学习与实践, ( 1), 87-97.

[本文引用: 1]

史燕伟, 徐富明, 罗教讲, 李燕, 刘程浩 . ( 2015).

行为经济学中的信任: 形成机制及影响因素

心理科学进展, 23( 7), 1236-1244.

DOI:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2015.01236      URL     [本文引用: 1]

信任是指个体以对他人意图和行为的积极预期为基础,自愿使自己处于易被对方伤害的地位的一种心理状态。而行为经济学中的信任是指交易双方在博弈、谈判、消费及经济贸易等特定环境下,在有限信息和经验基础之上,对对方履行承诺的积极预期及能力的认可。目前,研究者对这一现象形成机制的解释主要包括心理机制及生物基础,其中心理机制主要包括反思.冲动模型和社会偏好理论,生物基础主要涉及杏仁核、脑岛等结构以及催产素和睾九酮等激素。影响经济信任的因素主要包括交流、经验、声誉及面部特征等。未来需从经济信任的理论解释及生物基础、跨文化研究以及生态效度和应对策略等方面展开进一步的探讨。

吴南, 苏彦捷 . ( 2012).

催产素及受体基因与社会适应行为

心理科学进展, 20( 6), 863-874.

[本文引用: 2]

杨侠, 王瑞, 徐凯, 杨帆, 陈彦斌, 左智, 宋斌 . ( 2017).

敲低髓细胞白血病基因1(mcl-1)促进前列腺癌细胞的增殖并促进其凋亡

细胞与分子免疫学杂志, 33( 1), 62-66.

URL     [本文引用: 1]

目的检测人髓细胞白血病基因1(MCL-1)蛋白在前列腺癌组织中的表达及其对前列腺癌预后的影响并初步探索其机制。方法利用免疫组织化学方法检测517例前列腺癌组织及癌旁组织中MCL-1蛋白的表达,统计学分析其与前列腺癌患者预后的相关性。干涉前列腺癌细胞系中人MCL-1基因的表达,利用MTT及克隆形成实验检测前列腺癌细胞增殖活性、原位末端转移酶标记技术(TUNEL)检测细胞凋亡能力。结果 MCL-1在前列腺癌组织中的表达显著高于癌旁组织,且MCL-1高表达的前列腺癌患者预后较差。在前列腺癌细胞中干涉MCL-1的表达后,前列腺癌细胞的增殖及抗凋亡能力显著降低。结论MCL-1在前列腺癌组织高表达,干涉前列腺癌细胞中MCL-1表达后可抑制细胞的增殖并促进其凋亡。

张宁, 张雨青, 吴坎坎 . ( 2011).

信任的心理和神经生理机制

心理科学, 34( 5), 1137-1143.

[本文引用: 1]

Apicella C. L., Cesarini D., Johannesson M., Dawes C. T., Lichtenstein P., Wallace B., … Westberg L . ( 2010).

No association between oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene polymorphisms and experimentally elicited social preferences

PLoS One, 5( 6), e11153.

DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0011153      URL     PMID:2886839      [本文引用: 1]

Oxytocin (OXT) has been implicated in a suite of complex social behaviors including observed choices in economic laboratory experiments. However, actual studies of associations between oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene variants and experimentally elicited social preferences are rare.

Avinun R., Israel S., Shalev I., Gritsenko I., Bornstein G., Ebstein, R. P. & Knafo, A . ( 2011).

AVPR1A variant associated with preschoolers’ lower altruistic behavior

PLoS One, 6( 9), e25274.

DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0025274      URL     PMID:3182215      [本文引用: 2]

The genetic origins of altruism, defined here as a costly act aimed to benefit non-kin individuals, have not been examined in young children. However, previous findings concerning adults pointed at the arginine vasopressin receptor 1A (AVPR1A) gene as a possible candidate. AVPR1A has been associated with a range of behaviors including aggressive, affiliative and altruistic phenotypes, and recently a specific allele (327 bp) of one of its promoter region polymorphisms (RS3) has been singled out in particular. We modeled altruistic behavior in preschoolers using a laboratory-based economic paradigm, a modified dictator game (DG), and tested for association between DG allocations and the RS3 “target allele.” Using both population and family-based analyses we show a significant link between lower allocations and the RS3 “target allele,” associating it, for the first time, with a lower proclivity toward altruistic behavior in children. This finding helps further the understanding of the intricate mechanisms underlying early altruistic behavior.

Baumgartner T., Heinrichs M., Vonlanthen A., Fischbacher U., & Fehr E . ( 2008).

Oxytocin shapes the neural circuitry of trust and trust adaptation in humans

Neuron, 58( 4), 639-650.

DOI:10.1016/j.neuron.2008.04.009      URL     PMID:18498743      [本文引用: 1]

Abstract Trust and betrayal of trust are ubiquitous in human societies. Recent behavioral evidence shows that the neuropeptide oxytocin increases trust among humans, thus offering a unique chance of gaining a deeper understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying trust and the adaptation to breach of trust. We examined the neural circuitry of trusting behavior by combining the intranasal, double-blind, administration of oxytocin with fMRI. We find that subjects in the oxytocin group show no change in their trusting behavior after they learned that their trust had been breached several times while subjects receiving placebo decrease their trust. This difference in trust adaptation is associated with a specific reduction in activation in the amygdala, the midbrain regions, and the dorsal striatum in subjects receiving oxytocin, suggesting that neural systems mediating fear processing (amygdala and midbrain regions) and behavioral adaptations to feedback information (dorsal striatum) modulate oxytocin's effect on trust. These findings may help to develop deeper insights into mental disorders such as social phobia and autism, which are characterized by persistent fear or avoidance of social interactions.

Benjamin D. J., Cesarini D., van der Loos, M. J. H. M., Dawes C. T., Koellinger P. D., Magnusson P. K. E., … Visscher P. M . ( 2012).

The genetic architecture of economic and political preferences

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109( 21), 8026-8031.

DOI:10.1073/pnas.1120666109      URL     [本文引用: 2]

Preferences are fundamental building blocks in all models of economic and political behavior. We study a new sample of comprehensively genotyped subjects with data on economic and political preferences and educational attainment. We use dense single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data to estimate the proportion of variation in these traits explained by common SNPs and to conduct genome-wide association study (GWAS) and prediction analyses. The pattern of results is consistent with findings for other complex traits. First, the estimated fraction of phenotypic variation that could, in principle, be explained by dense SNP arrays is around one-half of the narrow heritability estimated using twin and family samples. The molecular-genetic-based heritability estimates, therefore, partially corroborate evidence of significant heritability from behavior genetic studies. Second, our analyses suggest that these traits have a polygenic architecture, with the heritable variation explained by many genes with small effects. Our results suggest that most published genetic association studies with economic and political traits are dramatically underpowered, which implies a high false discovery rate. These results convey a cautionary message for whether, how, and how soon molecular genetic data can contribute to, and potentially transform, research in social science. We propose some constructive responses to the inferential challenges posed by the small explanatory power of individual SNPs.

Carter, C. S . ( 2007).

Sex differences in oxytocin and vasopressin: Implications for autism spectrum disorders?

Behavioural Brain Research, 176( 1), 170-186.

DOI:10.1016/j.bbr.2006.08.025      URL     PMID:17000015      [本文引用: 1]

Abstract Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are male-biased and characterized by deficits in social behavior and social communication, excessive anxiety or hyperreactivity to stressful experiences, and a tendency toward repetitiveness. The purpose of this review is to consider evidence for a role for two sexually dimorphic neuropeptides, oxytocin (OT) and arginine vasopressin (VP), in these features of ASD. Both VP and OT play a role in normal development. VP is androgen-dependent and of particular importance to male behavior. Excess VP or disruptions in the VP system could contribute to the male vulnerability to ASD. Alternatively, protective processes mediated via OT or the OT receptor might help to explain the relatively rare occurrence of ASD in females. Disruptions in either OT or VP or their receptors could result from genetic variation or epigenetic modifications of gene expression, especially during early development. Deficits in other developmental growth factors, such as reelin, which may in turn regulate or be regulated by OT or VP, are additional candidates for a role in ASD.

Cesarini D., Dawes C. T., Fowler J. H., Johannesson M., Lichtenstein P., & Wallace B . ( 2008).

Heritability of cooperative behavior in the trust game

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105( 10), 3721-3726.

DOI:10.1073/pnas.0710069105      URL     [本文引用: 3]

Dimoka, A . ( 2010).

What does the brain tell us about trust and distrust? Evidence from a functional neuroimaging study

MIS Quarterly, 34( 2), 373-396.

DOI:10.1007/s10107-009-0328-z      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Determining whom to trust and whom to distrust is a major decision in impersonal IT-enabled exchanges. Despite the potential role of both trust and distrust in impersonal exchanges, the information systems literature has primarily focused on trust, alas paying relatively little attention to distrust. Given the importance of studying both trust and distrust, this study aims to shed light on the nature, dimensionality, distinction, and relationship, and relative effects of trust and distrust on economic outcomes in the context of impersonal IT-enabled exchanges between buyers and sellers in online marketplaces. This study uses functional neuroimaging (fMRI) tools to complement psychometric measures of trust and distrust by observing the location, timing, and level of brain activity that underlies trust and distrust and their underlying dimensions. The neural correlates of trust and distrust are identified when subjects interact with four experimentally manipulated seller profiels that differ on their level of trust and distrust. The results show that trust and distrust activate different brain areas and have different effects, helping explain why trust and distrust are distinct constructs associated with different neurological processes. Implications for the nature, distinction and relationship, dimensionality, and effects of trust and distrust are discussed.

Dinesen, P. T . ( 2012).

Does generalized (dis)trust travel? Examining the impact of cultural heritage and destination- country environment on trust of immigrants

Political Psychology, 33( 4), 495-511.

DOI:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2012.00886.x      URL     [本文引用: 1]

At least two contrasting perspectives on the roots of generalized trust exist: The cultural perspective emphasizing how trust is a stable trait passed on from one generation to the next through parental socialization, and the experiential perspective, which stresses that trust is subject to change with what we experience in the environment in which we live. Analyzing trust of immigrants is an effective way to contrast the two perspectives, as the cultural perspective predicts that immigrants' level of trust will continue to reflect the level of trust of their home country, whereas the experiential perspective predicts that trust of immigrants will change according to the environment of the destination country. This article examines how first-generation immigrants from three low-trust countries of origin (Turkey, Poland, and Italy) are affected by migrating to high-trust countries in Northern Europe, which hold qualities conducive to trust. In contrast to earlier studies examining trust of immigrants, I build on one data set containing data on both migrants and nonmigrants from the same country of origin as well as on a wide range of relevant covariates of trust. Using the method of matching, the results of the analysis lend most support to the experiential perspective on trust as the destination-country context has a massive impact on trust of immigrants, who display significantly higher levels of trust than comparable respondents in their country of origin. The results are robust to limiting the destination-country context to only one country (Germany) and comparing migrants and nonmigrants responding in the same language.

Donaldson, Z. R., & Young, L. J . ( 2008).

Oxytocin, vasopressin, and the neurogenetics of sociality

Science, 322( 5903), 900-904.

DOI:10.1126/science.1158668      URL     PMID:18988842      [本文引用: 2]

Abstract There is growing evidence that the neuropeptides oxytocin and vasopressin modulate complex social behavior and social cognition. These ancient neuropeptides display a marked conservation in gene structure and expression, yet diversity in the genetic regulation of their receptors seems to underlie natural variation in social behavior, both between and within species. Human studies are beginning to explore the roles of these neuropeptides in social cognition and behavior and suggest that variation in the genes encoding their receptors may contribute to variation in human social behavior by altering brain function. Understanding the neurobiology and neurogenetics of social cognition and behavior has important implications, both clinically and for society.

Erikson E. H. ( 1993). Childhood and society. New York: Norton Press.

[本文引用: 1]

Fehr, E. . ( 2009).

Chapter 15-Social preferences and the brain. In P. W. Glimcher, C. F. Camerer, E. Fehr, & Poldrack (Eds.)

Neuroeconomics: Vol.2: Decision making and the brain (pp. 215-232). Amsterdam: Academic Press.

[本文引用: 1]

Field T. M., Grizzle N., Scafidi F., & Schanberg S . ( 1996).

Massage and relaxation therapies’ effects on depressed adolescent mothers

Adolescence, 31( 124), 903-911.

URL     PMID:8970662      [本文引用: 1]

Thirty-two depressed adolescent mothers received ten 30-minute sessions of massage therapy or relaxation therapy over a five-week period. Subjects were randomly assigned to each group. Although both groups reported lower anxiety following their first and last therapy sessions only the massage therapy group showed behavioral and stress hormone changes including a decrease in anxious behavior pulse and salivary cortisol levels. A decrease in urine cortisol levels suggested lower stress following the five-week period for the massage therapy group. Depression is one of the most prevalent medical disorders and has been recognized as a distinct pathologic entity from early Egyptian times. Anxiety is one of the primary features of depression in adolescents (Goldman 1988) and relaxation therapy (RT) is usually noted to decrease anxiety. Using the State-Trait Anxiety Scale for example anxiety levels were found to be lower in psychiatric patients following nine sessions of relaxation therapy. Even following one brief RT session mood was elevated on the Profile of Mood States Scale. (excerpt)

Fox E., Ridgewell A., & Ashwin C . ( 2009).

Looking on the bright side: Biased attention and the human serotonin transporter gene

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 276( 1663), 1747-1751.

DOI:10.1098/rspb.2008.1788      URL     PMID:19324793      [本文引用: 1]

Humans differ in terms of biased attention for emotional stimuli and these biases can confer differential resilience and vulnerability to emotional disorders. Selective processing of positive emotional information, for example, is associated with enhanced sociability and well-being while a bias for negative material is associated with neuroticism and anxiety. A tendency to selectively avoid negative material might also be associated with mental health and well-being. The neurobiological mechanisms underlying these cognitive phenotypes are currently unknown. Here we show for the first time that allelic variation in the promotor region of the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR) is associated with differential biases for positive and negative affective pictures. Individuals homozygous for the long allele (LL) showed a marked bias to selectively process positive affective material alongside selective avoidance of negative affective material. This potentially protective pattern was absent among individuals carrying the short allele (S or SL). Thus, allelic variation on a common genetic polymorphism was associated with the tendency to selectively process positive or negative information. The current study is important in demonstrating a genotyperelated alteration in a well-established processing bias, which is a known risk factor in determining both resilience and vulnerability to emotional disorders.

Haselhuhn M. P., Kennedy J. A., Kray L. J., van Zant A. B., & Schweitzer M. E . ( 2015).

Gender differences in trust dynamics: Women trust more than men following a trust violation

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 56, 104-109.

DOI:10.1016/j.jesp.2014.09.007      URL     [本文引用: 1]

61We examine gender differences in how trust changes after transgressions.61We show that women trust more than men following a violation.61Women are less likely than men to lose trust in others following transgressions.61Women are more likely than men to regain trust after repeated transgressions.61Women's greater relational investment underlies these gender differences.

Heinrichs, M., & Domes, G. ( 2008).

Neuropeptides and social behaviour: Effects of oxytocin and vasopressin in humans

Progress in Brain Research, 170, 337-350.

DOI:10.1016/S0079-6123(08)00428-7      URL     PMID:18655894      [本文引用: 3]

Abstract The fundamental ability to form attachment is indispensable for human social relationships. Impairments in social behaviour are associated with decreased quality of life and psychopathological states. In non-human mammals, the neuropeptides oxytocin (OXT) and arginine vasopressin (AVP) are key mediators of complex social behaviours, including attachment, social recognition and aggression. In particular, OXT reduces behavioural and neuroendocrine responses to social stress and seems both to enable animals to overcome their natural avoidance of proximity and to inhibit defensive behaviour, thereby facilitating approach behaviour. AVP has primarily been implicated in male-typical social behaviours, including aggression and pair-bond formation, and mediates anxiogenic effects. Initial studies in humans suggest behavioural, neural, and endocrine effects of both neuropeptides, similar to those found in animal studies. This review focuses on advances made to date in the effort to understand the role of OXT and AVP in human social behaviour. First, the literature on OXT and AVP and their involvement in social stress and anxiety, social cognition, social approach, and aggression is reviewed. Second, we discuss clinical implications for mental disorders that are associated with social deficits (e.g. autism spectrum disorder, borderline personality disorder). Finally, a model of the interactions of anxiety and stress, social approach behaviour, and the oxytocinergic system is presented, which integrates the novel approach of a psychobiological therapy in psychopathological states.

Heinrichs M., Von Dawans B., & Domes G . ( 2009).

Oxytocin, vasopressin, and human social behavior

Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 30( 4), 548-557.

DOI:10.1016/j.yfrne.2009.05.005      URL     PMID:19505497      [本文引用: 1]

Abstract There is substantial evidence from animal research indicating a key role of the neuropeptides oxytocin (OT) and arginine vasopressin (AVP) in the regulation of complex social cognition and behavior. As social interaction permeates the whole of human society, and the fundamental ability to form attachment is indispensable for social relationships, studies are beginning to dissect the roles of OT and AVP in human social behavior. New experimental paradigms and technologies in human research allow a more nuanced investigation of the molecular basis of social behavior. In addition, a better understanding of the neurobiology and neurogenetics of human social cognition and behavior has important implications for the current development of novel clinical approaches for mental disorders that are associated with social deficits (e.g., autism spectrum disorder, social anxiety disorder, and borderline personality disorder). This review focuses on our recent knowledge of the behavioral, endocrine, genetic, and neural effects of OT and AVP in humans and provides a synthesis of recent advances made in the effort to implicate the oxytocinergic system in the treatment of psychopathological states.

Huhe N., Chen J., & Tang M . ( 2015).

Social trust and grassroots governance in rural China

Social Science Research, 53, 351-363.

DOI:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2015.06.010      URL     PMID:26188459      [本文引用: 2]

The relationship between social trust and governance has been one of the focal points of the academic and policy-making communities. Empirical studies on this relationship, however, have focused mostly on democracies. The scarcity of such studies in authoritarian countries has left many important questions unanswered: Is social trust associated with effective governance only in democratic settings? Can social trust improve the quality of governance in non-democracies as well? Drawing on data from 2005 China General Social Survey—a representative survey conducted nationwide at both the individual- and village-level in rural China, this paper attempts to answer these questions empirically by examining the relationship between social trust and the quality of governance in rural China. The findings reveal that different types of social trust—particularized trust and generalized trust—correspond with different effects in rural governance: whereas villagers’ trust in people whom they knew personally was positively and significantly associated with the provision of various public goods and services, their trust in strangers had virtually no impact on rural governance.

Israel S., Lerer E., Shalev I., Uzefovsky F., Riebold M., Laiba E., … Ebstein R. P . ( 2009).

The oxytocin receptor (OXTR) contributes to prosocial fund allocations in the dictator game and the social value orientations task

PLoS One, 4( 5), e5535.

DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0005535      URL     PMID:19461999     

Background Economic games observe social decision making in the laboratory that involves real money payoffs. Previously we have shown that allocation of funds in the Dictator Game (DG), a paradigm that illustrates costly altruistic behavior, is partially determined by promoter-region repeat region variants in the arginine vasopressin 1a receptor gene (AVPR1a). In the current investigation, the gene encoding the related oxytocin receptor (OXTR) was tested for association with the DG and a related paradigm, the Social Values Orientation (SVO) task. Methodology/Principal Findings Association (101 male and 102 female students) using a robust-family based test between 15 single tagging SNPs (htSNPs) across the OXTR was demonstrated with both the DG and SVO. Three htSNPs across the gene region showed significant association with both of the two games. The most significant association was observed with rs1042778 (p = 0.001). Haplotype analysis also showed significant associations for both DG and SVO. Following permutation test adjustment, significance was observed for 2 5 locus haplotypes (p<0.05). A second sample of 98 female subjects was subsequently and independently recruited to play the dictator game and was genotyped for the three significant SNPs found in the first sample. The rs1042778 SNP was shown to be significant for the second sample as well (p = 0.004, Fisher's exact test). Conclusions The demonstration that genetic polymorphisms for the OXTR are associated with human prosocial decision making converges with a large body of animal research showing that oxytocin is an important social hormone across vertebrates including Homo sapiens. Individual differences in prosocial behavior have been shown by twin studies to have a substantial genetic basis and the current investigation demonstrates that common variants in the oxytocin receptor gene, an important element of mammalian social circuitry, underlie such individual differences.

Johnson, W . ( 2007).

Genetic and environmental influences on behavior: Capturing all the interplay

Psychological Review, 114( 2), 423-440.

DOI:10.1037/0033-295X.114.2.423      URL     PMID:17500633      [本文引用: 4]

Basic quantitative genetic models of human behavioral variation have made clear that individual differences in behavior cannot be understood without acknowledging the importance of genetic influences. Yet these basic models estimate average, population-level genetic and environmental influences, obscuring differences that might exist within the population and masking systematic transactions between specific genetic and environmental influences. This article discusses a newer, more sophisticated and powerful quantitative genetic model that articulates these transactions. Results from this model highlight the ways in which the gene- environment interaction and correlation are intertwined. They can be used to integrate findings from quantitative and molecular genetic studies and to understand the roles of genetic influences and social forces in manifested behaviors, even when DNA sequence variation is not relevant.

Johnson-George, C., & Swap, W. C . ( 1982).

Measurement of specific interpersonal trust: Construction and validation of a scale to assess trust in a specific other

Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 43( 6), 1306-1317.

DOI:10.1037/0022-3514.43.6.1306      URL     [本文引用: 1]

ABSTRACT Developed scales to assess one individual's trust in another in meaningful interpersonal relationships. For males, the scale included factors of reliableness, emotional trust, and general trust. For females, similar but not identical reliableness and emotional trust factors emerged. The scales demonstrated adequate reliability and were discriminable from the related constructs of liking and love. In Exp I, 435 undergraduates' responses on the Reliableness subscale varied appropriately as a function of the reliable or nonreliable behavior of the target person. In Exp II, 84 undergraduates' responses on the Emotional Trust subscale varied appropriately when the target person either betrayed or did not betray a confidence. In both experiments, the appropriate subscale was more sensitive to experimental manipulations than were the other trust subscales, attesting to the discriminant validity of the trust factors. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Karg K., Burmeister M., Shedden K., & Sen S . ( 2011).

The serotonin transporter promoter variant (5-HTTLPR), stress, and depression meta-analysis revisited: Evidence of genetic moderation

Archives of General Psychiatry, 68( 5), 444-454.

DOI:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.189      URL     PMID:3740203      [本文引用: 2]

The incidence of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) ranges from 1.7 to 2.3 per 100,000 persons worldwide. Few epidemiological studies have been published in Latin America. The aim of this study was to estimate the incidence and prevalence of ALS in an HMO (Health Maintenance Organization) of Buenos Aires, capital city of Argentina. The population studied was affiliates of the Italian Hospital Medical Care Program, whose distribution across age and gender strata is similar to the population of Buenos Aires. Cases were detected from 1 January 2003 to 31 December 2010. Incidence density (ID) and prevalence for ALS were estimated for the whole period and at 31 December 2010, respectively. During the seven-year study period, the crude ID estimated was 3.17 per 100,000 person-years (95% CI 2.240900094.48) and the age-adjusted ID for the Buenos Aires population was 2.23 per 100,000 person-years (95% CI 1.450900093.01). Point prevalence at 31 December 2010 was 8.86 per 100,000 persons (95% CI 4.0509000913.68). Mean age at diagnosis was 72.29 years (SD 8.5). In conclusion, estimated age-adjusted ID and prevalence of ALS were similar to the incidence and prevalence rates found in other geographical areas.

Kim H. S., Sherman D. K., Sasaki J. Y., Xu J., Chu T. Q., Ryu C., … Taylor S. E . ( 2010).

Culture, distress, and oxytocin receptor polymorphism (OXTR) interact to influence emotional support seeking

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107( 36), 15717-15721.

DOI:10.1073/pnas.1010830107      URL     PMID:20724662      [本文引用: 2]

Abstract Research has demonstrated that certain genotypes are expressed in different forms, depending on input from the social environment. To examine sensitivity to cultural norms regarding emotional support seeking as a type of social environment, we explored the behavioral expression of oxytocin receptor polymorphism (OXTR) rs53576, a gene previously related to socio-emotional sensitivity. Seeking emotional support in times of distress is normative in American culture but not in Korean culture. Consequently, we predicted a three-way interaction of culture, distress, and OXTR genotype on emotional support seeking. Korean and American participants (n = 274) completed assessments of psychological distress and emotional support seeking and were genotyped for OXTR. We found the predicted three-way interaction: among distressed American participants, those with the GG/AG genotypes reported seeking more emotional social support, compared with those with the AA genotype, whereas Korean participants did not differ significantly by genotype; under conditions of low distress, OXTR groups did not differ significantly in either cultural group. These findings suggest that OXTR rs53576 is sensitive to input from the social environment, specifically cultural norms regarding emotional social support seeking. These findings also indicate that psychological distress and culture are important moderators that shape behavioral outcomes associated with OXTR genotypes.

Knafo A., Israel S., Darvasi A., Bachner-Melman R., Uzefovsky F., Cohen L., … Ebstein R. P . ( 2008).

Individual differences in allocation of funds in the dictator game associated with length of the arginine vasopressin 1a receptor RS3 promoter region and correlation between RS3 length and hippocampal mRNA

Genes Brain & Behavior, 7( 3), 266-275.

Kong, D. T . ( 2014).

An economic-genetic theory of corporate corruption across cultures: An interactive effect of wealth and the 5HTTLPR-SS/SL frequency on corporate corruption mediated by cultural endorsement of self- protective leadership

Personality & Individual Differences, 63, 106-111.

[本文引用: 5]

Kong, D. T . ( 2015).

A gene-environment interaction model of social trust: The 5-HTTLPR s-allele prevalence as a moderator for the democracy-trust linkage

Personality & Individual Differences, 87, 278-281.

DOI:10.1016/j.paid.2015.08.028      URL     [本文引用: 4]

61Democracy×the 5-HTTLPR S-allele prevalence is negatively related to social trust.61Democracy facilitates social trust when the 5-HTTLPR S-allele prevalence is low.61Democracy is unrelated to trust when the 5-HTTLPR S-allele prevalence is high.61Wealth×climatic demands is positively related to social trust.

Kong, D. T . ( 2016).

A gene-dependent climatoeconomic model of generalized trust

Journal of World Business, 51( 2), 226-236.

DOI:10.1016/j.jwb.2015.08.018      URL     [本文引用: 5]

Given the benefits of generalized trust, its determinants receive growing attention in international/cross-cultural management/psychology. This research proposed a gene-dependent climatoeconomic model, integrating multiple types of determinants parsimoniously. Across 53 societies, generalized trust is a multiplicative function not only of climatic demands and wealth (climatoeconomic contextualization), but also of climatic demands, wealth, and the 5-HTTLPR S-allele prevalence (gene-dependent climatoeconomic contextualization), mediated by uncertainty avoidance. The climatoeconomic contextualization is present only in societies possessing a low level of the 5-HTTLPR S-allele prevalence. These findings shed light on trust and international management research as well as interventions and policy making for societal effectiveness.

Kreek M. J., Zhou Y., & Levran O . ( 2011).

Functions of arginine vasopressin and its receptors: Importance of human molecular genetics studies in bidirectional translational research

Biological Psychiatry, 70( 6), 502-503.

DOI:10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.07.013      URL     [本文引用: 4]

Background: Few studies have investigated how demographic, clinical and organizational characteristics influence parents' experiences with child and adolescent mental health services (CAMHS). The objective of this study was to determine the effects of these characteristics on parents' experiences using data from a large national postal survey. Method: A questionnaire was mailed to 17,871 parents or other primary caregivers whose children were attending 1 of the 86 outpatient CAMHS in Norway in 2006. Multiple regression analysis was used to explore the associations between demographic, clinical and organizational characteristics, and three scales of parents' experiences. Results: The questionnaire was completed by 7906 parents (46%). Organizational characteristics such as involvement of the parents in treatment and accessibility to the clinic explained most of the variation in all three scales of parents' experiences. Although the effects of demographic and clinical characteristics of the children in some instances were statistically significant, they only accounted for a small amount of the total explained variance. Conclusion: Accessibility to the clinic and involvement of the parents in treatment are much stronger predictors of parental experiences with outpatient CAMHS than are demographic and clinical variables. Accessibility and involvement are at least partly influenced by the clinics themselves, and hence parental satisfaction may be enhanced by making the clinics more accessible and by involving the parents/caregivers in the treatment.

Krueger F., Parasuraman R., Iyengar V., Thornburg M., Weel J., Lin M., … Lipsky R. H . ( 2012).

Oxytocin receptor genetic variation promotes human trust behavior

Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 4.

DOI:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00004      URL     PMID:22347177     

Abstract Given that human trust behavior is heritable and intranasal administration of oxytocin enhances trust, the oxytocin receptor (OXTR) gene is an excellent candidate to investigate genetic contributions to individual variations in trust behavior. Although a single-nucleotide polymorphism involving an adenine (A)/guanine (G) transition (rs53576) has been associated with socio-emotional phenotypes, its link to trust behavior is unclear. We combined genotyping of healthy male students (n090009=090009108) with the administration of a trust game experiment. Our results show that a common occurring genetic variation (rs53576) in the OXTR gene is reliably associated with trust behavior rather than a general increase in trustworthy or risk behaviors. Individuals homozygous for the G allele (GG) showed higher trust behavior than individuals with A allele carriers (AA/AG). Although the molecular functionality of this polymorphism is still unknown, future research should clarify how the OXTR gene interacts with other genes and the environment in promoting socio-emotional behaviors.

Kuhnen, C. M., & Chiao, J. Y . ( 2009).

Genetic determinants of financial risk taking

PLoS One, 4( 2), e4362.

DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0004362      URL     PMID:2634960      [本文引用: 2]

Individuals vary in their willingness to take financial risks. Here we show that variants of two genes that regulate dopamine and serotonin neurotransmission and have been previously linked to emotional behavior, anxiety and addiction (5-HTTLPR and DRD4) are significant determinants of risk taking in investment decisions. These findings provide novel evidence of a genetic basis for financial choices.

Lesch K. P., Bengel D., Heils A., Sabol S. Z., Greenberg B. D., Petri S., … Murphy D. L . ( 1996).

Association of anxiety-related traits with a polymorphism in the serotonin transporter gene regulatory region

Science, 274( 5292), 1527-1531.

DOI:10.1126/science.274.5292.1527      URL     PMID:8929413      [本文引用: 2]

Transporter-facilitated uptake of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT) has been implicated in anxiety in humans and animal models and is the site of action of widely used uptake-inhibiting antidepressant and antianxiety drugs. Human 5-HT transporter (5-HTT) gene transcription is modulated by a common polymorphism in its upstream regulatory region. The short variant of the polymorphism reduces the transcriptional efficiency of the 5-HTT gene promoter, resulting in decreased 5-HTT expression and 5-HT uptake in lymphoblasts. Association studies in two independent samples totaling 505 individuals revealed that the 5-HTT polymorphism accounts for 3 to 4 percent of total variation and 7 to 9 percent of inherited variance in anxiety-related personality traits in individuals as well as sibships.

Li J. G., Zhao Y. J., Li R., Broster L. S., Zhou C. L., & Yang S. Y . ( 2015).

Association of oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) rs53576 polymorphism with sociality: A meta-analysis

PLoS One, 10( 6), e0131820.

DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0131820      URL     PMID:26121678      [本文引用: 1]

Abstract A common variant in the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR), rs53576, has been broadly linked to socially related personality traits and behaviors. However, the pattern of published results is inconsistent. Here, we performed a meta-analysis to comprehensively evaluate the association. The literature was searched for relevant studies and effect sizes between individuals homozygous for the G allele (GG) and individuals with A allele carriers (AA/AG). Specifically, two indices of sociality were evaluated independently: i) general sociality (24 samples, n = 4955), i.e., how an individual responds to other people in general; and ii) close relationships (15 samples, n = 5262), i.e., how an individual responds to individuals with closed connections (parent-child or romantic relationship). We found positive association between the rs53576 polymorphism and general sociality (Cohen's d = 0.11, p = .02); G allele homozygotes had higher general sociality than the A allele carriers. However, the meta-analyses did not detect significant genetic association between rs53576 and close relationships (Cohen's d = 0.01, p = .64). In conclusion, genetic variation in the rs53576 influences general sociality, which further implies that it is worthy to systematically examine whether the rs53576 is a valid genetic marker for socially related psychiatric disorders.

Lonsdorf T. B., Weike A. I., Nikamo P., Schalling M., Hamm A. O., & Öhman A . ( 2009).

Genetic gating of human fear learning and extinction: Possible implications for gene-environment interaction in anxiety disorder

Psychological Science, 20( 2), 198-206.

DOI:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02280.x      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Lucht M. J., Barnow S., Sonnenfeld C., Rosenberger A., Grabe H. J., Schroeder W., … Rosskopf D . ( 2009).

Associations between the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) and affect, loneliness and intelligence in normal subjects

Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 33( 5), 860-866.

DOI:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2009.04.004      URL     PMID:19376182     

Associations of oxytocin receptor gene ( OXTR ) variants and autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have been reported in earlier studies; in one of the studies associations with IQ and daily living skills were found additionally. Variations of the oxytocin receptor gene might also regulate affect, attachment and separation beyond the diagnostic borders of autism. We tested hypotheses of associations between positive and negative affects and social and emotional loneliness (285 adults), IQ (117 adolescents) and polymorphisms of the oxytocin receptor gene ( OXTR rs53576, rs2254298 and rs2228485) in normal subjects. Individuals with the oxytocin OXTR rs53576 A/A genotype showed lower positive affect scores ( F 02=025.532, df02=021; p 02=020.019). This effect was restricted to males ( F 02=0213.098, df02=021; p 02=020.00047). Haplotypes constructed with the three markers were associated with positive affect ( p 02=020.0012), negative affect ( p 02<020.0001) and emotional loneliness ( p 02<020.0001). Non-verbal intelligence was significantly reduced in rs53576 A/A adolescents ( T 02=022.247, p 02=020.027). Our findings support a role for the oxytocin receptor haplotypes in the generation of affectivity, emotional loneliness and IQ.

Manuck, S. B., & McCaffery, J. M . ( 2014).

Gene-environment interaction

Annual Review of Psychology, 65( 1), 41-70.

DOI:10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115100      URL     [本文引用: 4]

Mayer R. C., Davis J. H., & Schoorman F. D . ( 1995).

An integrative model of organizational trust

The Academy of Management Review, 20( 3), 709-734.

DOI:10.5465/amr.1995.9508080335      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Minkov M., Blagoev V., & Bond M. H . ( 2015).

Improving research in the emerging field of cross-cultural sociogenetics: The case of serotonin

Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 46( 3), 336-354.

DOI:10.1177/0022022114563612      URL     [本文引用: 3]

Murgatroyd C., Wigger A., Frank E., Singewald N., Bunck M., Holsboer F., … Spengler D . ( 2004).

Impaired repression at a vasopressin promoter polymorphism underlies overexpression of vasopressin in a rat model of trait anxiety

Journal of Neuroscience, 24( 35), 7762-7770.

DOI:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1614-04.2004      URL     PMID:15342744     

Abstract Two inbred rat lines have been developed that show either high (HAB) or low (LAB) anxiety-related behavior. The behavioral phenotype correlates with arginine vasopressin (AVP) expression at the level of the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN), but not supraoptic nucleus, with HAB animals overexpressing the neuropeptide in both magnocellular and parvocellular subdivisions of the PVN. We detected a number of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the AVP locus that differ between the HAB and LAB animals, two of which were embedded in cis-regulatory elements. The HAB-specific allele of the AVP gene promoter occurs in 1.5% of outbred Wistar rats and is more transcriptionally active in vivo, as revealed by allele-specific transcription studies in cross-mated HAB/LAB F1 animals. Interestingly, one specific SNP [A(-1276)G] conferred reduced binding of the transcriptional repressor CArG binding factor A (CBF-A) in the HAB allele, the consequent differential regulation of the AVP promoter resulting in an overexpression of AVP in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, CBF-A is highly coexpressed in AVP-containing neurons of the PVN supporting an important role for regulation of AVP gene expression in vivo. Taken together, our results demonstrate a role for an AVP gene polymorphism and CBF-A in elevated AVP expression in the PVN of HAB rats likely to contribute to their behavioral and neuroendocrine phenotype.

Nishina K., Takagishi H., Inoue-Murayama M., Takahashi H., & Yamagishi T . ( 2015).

Polymorphism of the oxytocin receptor gene modulates behavioral and attitudinal trust among men but not women

PLoS One, 10( 10), e0137089.

DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0137089      URL     PMID:4621758      [本文引用: 1]

A relationship between the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) and behavioral and attitudinal trust has been suggested, but the nature of this relationship has not yet been established. We obtained behavioral trust data from 470 Japanese participants (242 women) aged 20-59 years, together with their levels of general trust and personality traits (NEO-FFI). Saliva buccal swabs were collected from 411 of these 470 participants and used for genotyping of OXTR rs53576. Our participants were found to have more AA alleles (40%) than GG alleles (12%). The GG men were more trusting and also rated higher on attitudinal trust than AA men, and this difference did not diminish when personality traits were controlled for. However, this pattern was not observed among women. In addition, controlling for attitudinal trust reduced the difference in behavioral trust among men to a non-significant level, but the difference in attitudinal trust remained significant when behavioral trust was controlled. These results indicate that the OXTR genotype affects attitudinal trust as part of an individual's relatively stable disposition, and further affects behavioral trust through changes in attitudinal trust.

Oskarsson S., Dawes C., Johannesson M., & Magnusson, P. K. E . ( 2012).

The genetic origins of the relationship between psychological traits and social trust

Twin Research & Human Genetics, 15( 1), 21-33.

DOI:10.1375/twin.15.1.21      URL     PMID:22784450      [本文引用: 1]

Abstract Recent studies have shown that trusting attitudes and behavior are biologically influenced. Focusing on the classic trust game, it has been demonstrated that oxytocin increases trust and that humans are endowed with genetic variation that influences their behavior in the game. Moreover, several studies have shown that a large share of the variation in survey responses to trust items is accounted for by an additive genetic component. Against this backdrop, this article makes two important contributions. First, utilizing a unique sample of more than 2,000 complete Swedish twin pairs, we provide further evidence of the heritability of social trust. Our estimates of the additive genetic component in social trust were consistent across the sexes -- .33 for males and .39 for females -- and are similar to the results reported in earlier studies. Secondly, we show that social trust is phenotypically related to three psychological traits -- extraversion, personal control, and intelligence - and that genetic factors account for most of these correlations. Jointly, these psychological factors share around 30% of the genetic influence on social trust both for males and females. Future studies should further explore the possible causal pathways between genes and trust using panel data on both psychological traits and social trust.

Oskarsson S., Dinesen P. T., Dawes C. T., Johannesson M., & Magnusson, P. K. E . ( 2017).

Education and social trust: Testing a causal hypothesis using the discordant twin design

Political Psychology, 38( 3), 515-531.

DOI:10.1111/pops.12343      URL     [本文引用: 1]

One of the clearest results in previous studies on social trust is the robust positive relationship with educational attainment. The most common interpretation is that education has a causal effect on social trust. The theoretical argument and empirical results in this article suggest a different interpretation. We argue that common preadult factors such as cognitive abilities and personality traits rooted in genes and early-life family environment may confound the relationship between educational attainment and social trust. We provide new evidence on this question by utilizing the quasi-experiment of twinning. By looking at the relationship between education and social trust within monozygotic (MZ) twin pairs, we are able to avoid potential confounders rooted in genetic factors and common environmental influences because the monozygotic twins share both. The results suggest that when controlling for such familial factors the estimated effects of education on social trust are close to zero and far from reaching statistical significance. Further analyses show that the relationship between education and social trust largely is driven by common genetic factors.

Rempel J. K., Ross M., & Holmes J. G . ( 2001).

Trust and communicated attributions in close relationships

Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 81( 1), 57-64.

DOI:10.1037//0022-3514.81.1.57      URL     PMID:11474726      [本文引用: 1]

The attributional statements intimate partners communicate to one another were examined as a function of trust. In discussions by 35 married couples, 850 attributions and corresponding events were coded on dimensions of valence, globality, and locus. Results of regression and contingency analyses indicate that attributional statements expressed in high-trust relationships emphasized positive aspects of the relationship. Medium-trust couples actively engaged issues but focused more on negative events and explanations. Low-trust couples expressed more specific, less affectively extreme attributional statements that minimized the potential for increased conflict. Results could not be accounted for by relationship satisfaction. These findings also highlight the importance of focusing on features of the events for which attributions are expressed.

Reuter M., Montag C., Altmann S., Bendlow F., Elger C., Kirsch P., … Falk A. ( 2009).

Genetically determined differences in human trust behavior: The role of the oxytocin receptor gene

Neuropsychoeconomics Conference Proceedings, 21. Retrieved from

URL     [本文引用: 3]

Riedl, R., & Javor, A . ( 2012).

The biology of trust: Integrating evidence from genetics, endocrinology, and functional brain imaging

Journal of Neuroscience Psychology & Economics, 5( 2), 63-91.

DOI:10.1037/a0026318      URL     [本文引用: 12]

Trust is among the most important factors in human life, as it pervades almost all domains of society. Although behavioral research has revealed a number of insights into the nature of trust, as well as its antecedents and consequences, an increasing number of scholars have begun to investigate the topic from a biological perspective to gain a deeper understanding. These biological investigations into trust have been carried out on three levels of analysis: genes, endocrinology, and the brain. Based on these three levels, we present a review of the literature on the biology of trust. Moreover, we integrate our findings into a conceptual framework which unifies the three levels of analysis, and we also link the biological levels to trust behavior. The results show that trust behavior is at least moderately genetically predetermined. Moreover, trust behavior is associated with specific hormones, in particular oxytocin, as well as specific brain structures, which are located in the basal ganglia, limbic system, and the frontal cortex. Based on these results, we discuss both methodological and thematic implications.

Robbins, B. G . ( 2016).

From the general to the specific: How social trust motivates relational trust

Social Science Research, 55, 16-30.

DOI:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2015.09.004      URL     PMID:26680285      [本文引用: 2]

When people form beliefs about the trustworthiness of others with respect to particular matters (i.e., when individuals trust), theory suggests that they rely on preexistent cognitive schemas regarding the general cooperativeness of individuals and organizations (i.e., social trust). In spite of prior work, the impact of social trust on relational trust r what Russell Hardin (2002) calls trust as a three-part relation where actor A trusts actor B with reference to matter Y s not well established. Four vignette experiments were administered to Amazon.com Mechanical Turk workers ( N =1388 and N =1419) and to public university undergraduate students ( N =995 and N =956) in order to investigate the relationship between social trust and relational trust. Measures of general social trust and particular social trust produced statistically equivalent effects that were positively associated with relational trust. Political trust, however, was statistically unrelated to relational trust. These results support the idea that people rely on schemas and stereotypes concerned with the general cooperativeness and helpfulness of others when forming beliefs about another person's trustworthiness with respect to a particular matter at hand.

Rotter, J. B . ( 1967).

A new scale for the measurement of interpersonal trust

Journal of Personality, 35( 4), 651-665.

DOI:10.1111/jopy.1967.35.issue-4      URL     [本文引用: 2]

Rousseau D. M., Sitkin S. B., Burt R. S., & Camerer C . ( 1998).

Not so different after all: A cross-discipline view of trust

Academy of Management Review, 23( 3), 393-404.

DOI:10.5465/amr.1998.926617      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Savitz, J. B., & Ramesar, R. S . ( 2004).

Genetic variants implicated in personality: A review of the more promising candidates

American Journal of Medical Genetics, Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 131B( 1), 20-32.

DOI:10.1002/ajmg.b.20155      URL     PMID:15389772      [本文引用: 1]

Abstract Alleles of the serotonin transporter gene ( SERT ) and the dopamine 4 receptor gene ( DRD4 ) were first associated with anxiety-related and novelty-seeking personality traits, respectively, in 1996. These early successes precipitated a flood of research into the genetic basis of personality; a quest that has yet to yield decisive answers. Here, both the theoretical and the empirical evidence implicating specific loci—in particular SERT and DRD4—in the development of personality is evaluated. Despite a paucity of statistically significant results following post-hoc analysis, and an excess of positive results derived from studies with small sample sizes, the existence of a genuine effect is argued for: a gene-personality relationship rendered periodically latent through genetic epistasis, gene–environment interactions, variation in genetic background, and the presence of other confounding variables. 08 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Sen S., Burmeister M., & Ghosh D . ( 2004).

Meta-analysis of the association between a serotonin transporter promoter polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) and anxiety-related personality traits

American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 127B( 1), 85-89.

DOI:10.1002/ajmg.b.20158      URL     PMID:15108187      [本文引用: 2]

Abstract Anxiety-related personality traits, such as NEO neuroticism and TCI/TPQ harm avoidance, have been shown to have significant genetic components. To date, however, no specific genetic variants that contribute to these traits have been conclusively identified. At least 26 studies have investigated a putative association between a functional serotonin transporter promoter polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) and anxiety-related personality traits. The results of these studies have been inconsistent with some studies finding evidence for an association, and others not. We performed a meta-analysis of all applicable studies investigating this association. In the overall analysis (N65=655,629 subjects), we found suggestive evidence for an association between the 5-HTTLPR short allele (s) and increased anxiety-related personality trait scores ( P 65=650.087). However, we also found strong evidence for heterogeneity. This heterogeneity is largely explained by substantial variation between the studies in the inventory used. When the analysis was stratified by inventory type, there was a significant association between 5-HTTLPR and NEO neuroticism ( P 65=650.000016), a non-significant association between 5-HTTLPR and TCI/TPQ harm avoidance ( P 65=650.166), and no association between 5-HTTLPR and other anxiety-related personality traits ( P 65=650.944). There was no evidence that these results were either due to publication bias or accounted for by any one single study. We conclude that there is a strong association between the serotonin transporter promoter variant and neuroticism as measured in the NEO personality inventory and that non-replications are largely due to small sample size and the use of different inventories. 08 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Skuse, D. H., & Gallagher, L . ( 2011).

Genetic influences on social cognition

Pediatric Research, 69, 85R-91R.

DOI:10.1203/PDR.0b013e318212f562      URL     [本文引用: 4]

Sturgis P., Read S., Hatemi P. K., Zhu G., Trull T., Wright M. J., & Martin N. G . ( 2010).

A genetic basis for social trust?

Political Behavior, 32( 2), 205-230.

DOI:10.1007/s11109-009-9101-5      URL    

A propensity to believe that fellow citizens will not act against our interests in social and economic transactions has been identified as key to the effective functioning of democratic polities. Yet the causes of this type of ‘generalized’ or ‘social’ trust are far from clear. To date, researchers within the social and political sciences have focused almost exclusively on social-developmental and political/institutional features of individuals and societies as the primary causal influences. In this paper we investigate the intriguing possibility that social trust might have a genetic, as well as an environmental basis. We use data collected from samples of monozygotic and dizygotic twins to estimate the additive genetic, shared environmental, and non-shared environmental components of trust. Our results show that the majority of the variance in a multi-item trust scale is accounted for by an additive genetic factor. On the other hand, the environmental influences experienced in common by sibling pairs have no discernable effect; the only environmental influences appear to be those that are unique to the individual. Our findings problematise the widely held view that the development of social trust occurs through a process of familial socialization at an early stage of the life course.

Theodoridou A., Rowe A. C., Penton-Voak I. S., & Rogers P. J . ( 2009).

Oxytocin and social perception: Oxytocin increases perceived facial trustworthiness and attractiveness

Hormones & Behavior, 56( 1), 128-132.

DOI:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2009.03.019      URL     PMID:19344725      [本文引用: 1]

The neuropeptide oxytocin is involved in the development and maintenance of attachment behaviours in humans and other species. Little is known, however, about how it affects judgements of unfamiliar others. In a double-blind placebo-controlled study we investigated the effect of a single intranasal dose of oxytocin on judgements of facial trustworthiness and attractiveness. We found that oxytocin administration increased ratings of trustworthiness and attractiveness of male and female targets in raters of both sexes relative to control ratings, suggesting that higher levels of this neuropeptide may enhance affiliative behaviour towards unfamiliar others. Our results provide evidence in support of a general facilitative role of oxytocin in promoting positive trait judgements.

Thompson R. R., George K., Walton J. C., Orr S. P., & Benson J . ( 2006).

Sex-specific influences of vasopressin on human social communication

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103( 20), 7889-7894.

DOI:10.1073/pnas.0600406103      URL     PMID:16682649      [本文引用: 1]

Arginine vasopressin (AVP) and related peptides affect social behaviors in numerous species, but AVP influences on human social functions have not yet been established. Here, we describe how intranasal AVP administration differentially affects social communication in men and women, and we propose a mechanism through which it may exert those influences. In men, AVP stimulates agonistic facial motor patterns in response to the faces of unfamiliar men and decreases perceptions of the friendliness of those faces. In contrast, in women, AVP stimulates affiliative facial motor patterns in response to the faces of unfamiliar women and increases perceptions of the friendliness of those faces. AVP also affected autonomic responsiveness to threatening faces and increased anxiety, which may underlie both communication patterns by promoting different social strategies in stressful contexts in men and women.

Thompson R., Gupta S., Miller K., Mills S., & Orr S . ( 2004).

The effects of vasopressin on human facial responses related to social communication

Psychoneuroendocrinology, 29( 1), 35-48.

DOI:10.1016/S0306-4530(02)00133-6      URL     PMID:14575728      [本文引用: 2]

Arginine vasopressin (AVP) and arginine vasotocin (AVT) influence social behaviors in a number of species from diverse taxonomic groups, therefore suggesting a conservation of social functions for these homologous neuropeptides during vertebrate evolution. However, whether or not AVP has the ability to directly influence social behavior in humans has not yet been determined. Because influences of AVT/AVP on behaviors related to social communication, particularly in aggressive contexts, are among the most consistently observed across species from diverse vertebrate groups, the present study was designed to determine if AVP administration would influence cognitive, autonomic and/or somatic responses to species-specific social stimuli important for agonistic communication in humans. Specifically, we tested the effects of intranasal AVP administration on attention towards emotionally expressive facial expressions, as well as on heart rate (HR), skin conductance (SC) and corrugator supercilii electromyograms (corrugator EMG) in response to these social stimuli. AVP did not affect attention toward, nor autonomic arousal in response to, emotionally neutral, happy or angry facial expressions, but it did selectively enhance the corrugator EMG responses evoked by emotionally neutral facial expressions, making them similar in magnitude to responses evoked by angry facial expressions in control subjects. Because this muscle group is involved in agonistic communication, these results suggest that AVP may influence aggression in human males by biasing individuals to respond to emotionally ambiguous social stimuli as if they were threatening/aggressive.

Tost H., Kolachana B., Hakimi S., Lemaitre H., Verchinski B. A., Mattay V. S., … Meyer-Lindenberg A . ( 2010).

A common allele in the oxytocin receptor gene ( OXTR) impacts prosocial temperament and human hypothalamic- limbic structure and function

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107( 31), 13936-13941.

DOI:10.1073/pnas.1003296107      URL     PMID:20647384      [本文引用: 2]

The evolutionarily highly conserved neuropeptide oxytocin is a key mediator of social and emotional behavior in mammals, including humans. A common variant (rs53576) in the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) has been implicated in social-behavioral phenotypes, such as maternal sensitivity and empathy, and with neuropsychiatric disorders associated with social impairment, but the intermediate neural mechanisms are unknown. Here, we used multimodal neuroimaging in a large sample of healthy human subjects to identify structural and functional alterations in OXTR risk allele carriers and their link to temperament. Activation and interregional coupling of the amygdala during the processing of emotionally salient social cues was significantly affected by genotype. In addition, evidence for structural alterations in key oxytocinergic regions emerged, particularly in the hypothalamus. These neural characteristics predicted lower levels of reward dependence, specifically in male risk allele carriers. Our findings identify sex-dependent mechanisms impacting the structure and function of hypothalamic-limbic circuits that are of potential clinical and translational significance.

van de Vliert, E., & Postmes, T . ( 2014).

Democracy does not promote well-being except in rich countries with demanding climates

Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 45( 8), 1179-1195.

DOI:10.1177/0022022114534983      URL    

Is democracy really a good thing because it improves well-being? Everywhere? Here we use multiple regression analysis to examine continuous associations between democracy and well-being across 137 countries. The results are clarified by breaking them down for 20 poor countries with demanding winters or summers (threatening habitats), 48 poor countries with undemanding temperate climates (unthreatening habitats), 23 rich countries with undemanding temperate climates (unchallenging habitats), and 46 rich countries with demanding winters or summers (challenging habitats). We show that democratic governance is negatively related to satisfaction with freedom of choice and overall happiness in threatening habitats and unrelated in unthreatening and unchallenging habitats. Only in challenging habitats of rich countries with demanding climates is democracy positively related to satisfaction with freedom of choice and overall happiness. This pattern of findings, which persists when controlling for a variety of societal risks, might suggest that the link between democracy and well-being can be particularly strengthened by empowering poorer populations in more demanding climates to generate more income.

Wu S. P., Jia M. X., Ruan Y., Liu J., Guo Y. Q., Shuang M., … Zhang D . ( 2005).

Positive association of the oxytocin receptor gene ( OXTR) with autism in the Chinese Han population

Biological Psychiatry, 58( 1), 74-77.

DOI:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.03.013      URL     PMID:15992526     

Previous research has suggested that the social impairments exhibited by individuals with autism are associated with changes in plasma oxytocin (OT) levels. The physiologic effects of oxytocin are mediated through its specific receptors (OTRs), and numerous studies have implicated OTRs in the regulation of social cognition and behavior. Animal models and linkage data from genome screens indicate that the oxytocin receptor gene ( OXTR) is an excellent candidate for research concerning psychiatric disorders, particularly those involving social impairments, such as autism. We genotyped four single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) located within the OXTR gene of 195 Chinese Han autism trios, using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. The family-based association test (FBAT) revealed a significant genetic association between autism and two of the SNPs tested (rs2254298 A: Z = 2.287, p = .0222; rs53576 A: Z = 2.573, p = .0101). When haplotypes were constructed with two, three, and four markers, the haplotype-specific FBAT revealed that a number of haplotypes, particularly those involving rs53576, were significantly associated with autism. Furthermore, haplotypes constructed with all markers showed a significant excess transmission for the specific and global haplotype analyses (p = .0020 and .0289, respectively). These data suggest an involvement of OXTR in the susceptibility to autism, and replication is important.

Yamagishi, T., & Yamagishi, M . ( 1994).

Trust and commitment in the United States and Japan

Motivation & Emotion, 18( 2), 129-166.

DOI:10.1007/BF02249397      URL     [本文引用: 1]

A distinction is proposed between trust as a cognitive bias in the evaluation of incomplete information about the (potential) interaction partner and assurance as a perception of the incentive structure that leads the interaction partner to act cooperatively. It is hypothesized that trust in this sense helps people to move out of mutually committed relations where the partner's cooperation is assured. Although commitment formation is a rather standard solution to the problems caused by social uncertainty, commitment becomes a liability rather than an asset as opportunity costs increase. Facing increasing opportunity costs, trust provides a springboard in the attempt to break psychological inertia that has been mobilized to maintain committed relations. In conjunction with an assumption that networks of mutually committed relations play a more prominent role in Japanese society than in American society, this hypothesis has been applied to predict a set of cross-national differences between the United States and Japan in the levels of trust and related factors. The results of a cross-national questionnaire survey (with 1,136 Japanese and 501 American respondents) support most of the predictions, and indicate that, in comparison to Japanese respondents, American respondents are more trusting of other people in general, consider reputation more important, and consider themselves more honest and fair. In contrast, Japanese respondents see more utility in dealing with others through personal relations.

Yan Z., Dong Y., Niemi V., & Yu G. L . ( 2013).

Exploring trust of mobile applications based on user behaviors: An empirical study

Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 43( 3), 638-659.

DOI:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2013.01044.x      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Summary: A mobile application is a software package that can be installed and executed on a mobile device. Which mobile application is more trustworthy for a user to purchase, download, install, consume or recommend becomes a crucial issue that impacts its final success. This paper explores trust of mobile applications based on users’ behaviors. It proposes a conceptual trust model according to trust behavior study. We achieve our model through Principal Component Analysis (PCA), reliability analysis, Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) based on data collected from a questionnaire survey. It is indicated that a user’s trust behavior is a multidimensional construct composed of three main aspects: using behavior, reflection behavior, and correlation behavior. They are further delineated into twelve measurable sub-constructs and relate to a number of external factors. The data analysis showed that the questionnaire has positive psychometric properties with respect to model construct validity and reliability. Particularly, the practical significance of our work towards usable trust management, the limitations of current empirical study and future work are also discussed.

Zak, P. J . ( 2011).

The physiology of moral sentiments

Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 77( 1), 53-65.

DOI:10.1016/j.jebo.2009.11.009      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Adam Smith made a persuasive case that “moral sentiments” are the foundation of ethical behaviors in his 1759 The Theory of Moral Sentiments. This view is still controversial as philosophers debate the extent of human morality. One type of moral behavior, assisting a stranger, has been shown by economists to be quite common in the laboratory and outside it. This paper presents the Empathy–Generosity–Punishment model that reveals the criticality of moral sentiments in producing prosocial behaviors. The model's predictions are tested causally in three neuroeconomics experiments that directly intervene in the human brain to “turn up” and “turn down” moral sentiments. This approach provides direct evidence on the brain mechanisms that produce prosociality using a brain circuit called HOME (human oxytocin-mediated empathy). By characterizing the HOME circuit, I identify situations in which moral sentiments will be engaged or disengaged. Using this information, applications to health and welfare policies, organizational and institutional design, economic development, and happiness are presented.

Zak, P. J., & Fakhar, A . ( 2006).

Neuroactive hormones and interpersonal trust: International evidence

Economics & Human Biology, 4( 3), 412-429.

DOI:10.1016/j.ehb.2006.06.004      URL     PMID:16979392      [本文引用: 1]

Social attachment is vital for human health and welfare. Recent experimental evidence in humans has identified the role of neuroactive hormones, especially the peptide oxytocin, in mediating trusting behaviors. Herein, we test if the endocrinological basis for trust between humans scales up to the country level. Trust pervades nearly every aspect of our daily lives, yet survey data on trust show substantial variation across countries. Using 31 measures of biological, social, and environmental factors associated with hormone levels for a sample of 41 countries, we find that two classes of factors are related to trust: consumption of plant-based estrogens (phytoestrogens), and the presence of environmental conditions that include measures of estrogen-like molecules. Our findings provide preliminary evidence that interpersonal trust at the country level may be related to the intake of neuroactive hormones.

/


版权所有 © 《心理科学进展》编辑部
地址:北京市朝阳区林萃路16号院 
邮编:100101 
电话:010-64850861 
E-mail:jinzhan@psych.ac.cn
备案编号:京ICP备10049795号-1 京公网安备110402500018号

本系统由北京玛格泰克科技发展有限公司设计开发