ISSN 1671-3710
CN 11-4766/R
主办:中国科学院心理研究所
出版:科学出版社

心理科学进展, 2018, 26(7): 1174-1185 doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2018.01174

研究前沿

手写体文字识别的特点及神经机制

任晓倩1, 方娴1, 隋雪,1, 吴岩,2

1 宁师范大学心理学院; 儿童青少年健康人格评定与培养协同创新中心, 大连 116029

2 北师范大学心理学院, 长春 130024

Characteristics and neural mechanisms of handwritten character recognition

REN Xiaoqian1, FANG Xian1, SUI Xue,1, WU Yan,2

1 School of Psychological Science, Liaoning Normal University, Collaborative Innovation Center for Healthy Personality Assessment and Training of Children and Adolescents, Dalian 116029, China

2 School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130024, China

通讯作者: 隋雪, E-mail:suixue88@163.com吴岩, E-mail:wuy399@nenu.edu.cn

收稿日期: 2017-09-27   网络出版日期: 2018-07-15

基金资助: 国家留学基金委公派留学项目(201608210288)
辽宁省自然科学基金项目(201602460)
辽宁省教育厅一般科研项目(L201683659)
辽宁省教育科学“十三五”规划年度课题(JG16CB341)

Received: 2017-09-27   Online: 2018-07-15

Fund supported: (201608210288)
(201602460)
(L201683659)
(JG16CB341)

摘要

手写体文字与打印体文字的识别过程存在很大差异, 与打印体文字相比, 手写体文字的识别受文本材料的影响更大, 具体包括文字的物理结构特性、文字特性、书写风格等。有关神经机制的研究发现, 手写体文字识别加工所涉及的脑区与打印体文字有所区别, 它既包含识别打印体文字的枕叶和外侧额顶叶, 还涉及到手写体文字识别的文化特异性脑区, 包括左后侧运动皮层, 外侧前额叶和后侧顶叶皮层。手写体文字加工既涉及整体加工, 也涉及特征加工, 加工方式既有其特异性, 又有与打印体文字的共同之处。未来研究应该进一步探究大脑在识别手写体文字时, 怎样在嘈杂的视觉信息中提取目标词, 并考虑手写体文字识别理论模型的构建, 以便更好地解释手写体文字的识别过程。

关键词: 手写体; 文字识别; 打印体; 神经机制

Abstract

There is a great difference between the recognition process of handwritten words and printed words. Compared with the printed words, the recognition of handwritten characters is more influenced by text material. The factors related to the text material include physical structural characteristics of the text, the character characteristics, and the writing style. Research on the neural mechanisms found that the brain regions under recognizing handwritten character is different from those under recognizing printed words. The activation brain area of recognizing handwritten words include the occipital lobe and lateral frontal and parietal lobes, which is the same as those of recognizing the printed words; and also include the left posterior motor cortex, the lateral prefrontal cortex and the posterior parietal cortex, which is different from those of recognizing the printed words. Handwritten word processing involves both holistic processing and feature processing. The future research should further explore around two aspects. The first is how the brain extracts the target words from the noisy visual information when we recognize the handwritten words. The second is to consider building a theoretical model of handwritten character recognition to explain the recognition process of the handwritten characters more efficiently.

Keywords: handwritten words; character recognition; printed words; neural mechanisms

PDF (504KB) 元数据 多维度评价 相关文章 导出 EndNote| Ris| Bibtex  收藏本文

本文引用格式

任晓倩, 方娴, 隋雪, 吴岩. 手写体文字识别的特点及神经机制 . 心理科学进展, 2018, 26(7): 1174-1185 doi:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2018.01174

REN Xiaoqian, FANG Xian, SUI Xue, WU Yan. Characteristics and neural mechanisms of handwritten character recognition. Advances in Psychological Science, 2018, 26(7): 1174-1185 doi:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2018.01174

1 问题提出

文字材料可以呈现为手写体文字和打印体文字, 而手写体文字作为早期文化流传的重要载体, 曾起到过很重要的作用。但是随着打印体文字的出现, 手写体文字的应用受到了很大的冲击。打印体文字相对规范, 相同词汇经过多次打印, 可以做到其形状基本不变, 其中的细微差别很难用肉眼发现。手写体文字有区别于打印体文字的特点和存在的价值, 手写体文字大小不一, 结构多变, 而且与书写者的书写风格及书写习惯有着密切的联系。手写体文字不可能完全被打印体文字取代, 在小学生识字过程中, 学习文字书写是他们的必经阶段, 也是个体内化汉字及其文化的过程。此外, 手写体文字的书写及其阅读需要通过大脑的监控, 并且还涉及到语言和视觉处理的复杂过程(Dehaene, Cohen, Sigman, & Vinckier, 2005), 对个体心理发展具有重要意义。

无论是方块文字还是拼音文字, 其手写体形式和打印体形式都有明显差异, 具体表现在文字物理结构、文字相似性、书写风格等方面。文字复杂的物理结构使得手写体文字相较于打印体文字有更多噪声, 例如笔画模糊不清、连笔、畸变、倾斜等。文字间的相似性也使手写体文字识别区别于打印体文字, 例如“人、入”、“辩、辫、辨”、“未、末”等相似的汉字, 当个体不能规范书写时, 手写体文字的识别过程将会变得困难。另外, 手写体文字相较于打印体文字, 其书写风格多变, 无规律可循, 个体间差异较大, 从而导致两者之间存在明显差异。

现今, 大多数词汇加工理论和模型都是围绕打印体文字的研究结果构建的。比如E-Z读者模型(E-Z Reader Model), 该模型认为, 词汇识别过程主要包括两个阶段:早期的熟悉度筛查阶段(L1)和晚期的词汇通达阶段(L2) (Reichle, Pollatsek, Fisher, & Rayner, 1998)。在早期熟悉度筛查阶段, 词汇的注视时间受词汇熟悉度影响, 熟悉度高的词注视时间短, 熟悉度低的词注视时间长; 在晚期的词汇通达阶段, 注视词加工完成后, 注意将转移到下一个单词, 并触发眼跳, 开始新的注视(Reichle, Pollatsek, & Rayner, 2006)。再比如SWIFT模型(自发眼跳-中央凹抑制模型, Saccade- generation With Inhibition by Foveal Targets, 简称SWIFT模型), 该模型认为:(1)加工时提取的词汇信息分布在注意窗口上; (2)扫视时间与扫视目标的选择是分离的; (3)扫视生成过程是一个自主(随机)过程, 该过程受中央凹目标词的抑制。这一模型认为注意在注视广度中呈不同梯度分布, 其中加工程度最深的是位于中央凹的词汇, 而两侧词汇随着与中央凹的距离增加其加工梯度随之下降, 但新的注视往往取决于中央凹词汇加工的结果(Engbert, Longtin, & Kliegl, 2002)。

研究者们也从神经科学的角度对手写体文字的阅读进行了研究。Bub, Arguin和Lecours (1993)探究了阅读的神经基础是否与视觉皮层有关, 阅读是否依赖视觉信息并将其嵌入到语言系统等问题。他们发现, 当给失读症患者(左侧枕叶损伤)呈现一段句子材料时, 患者能够正确书写并理解其具体含义, 但是不能进行阅读。他们认为产生这种现象的原因是, 文字识别加工过程由视觉中枢与双侧枕叶通过协同作用完成, 而枕叶损伤将会破坏视觉信息与语言系统间的联系。另外, Wandell, Rauschecker和Yeatman (2012)研究了快速识别书面文字的过程。当被试加工熟悉度高的单词时, 主要依赖大脑皮层一系列的正确处理, 所涉及的脑回路主要包括:局部大脑皮层(涉及视觉和语言加工的腹侧枕叶区域)及其连接的白质束, 并且在该处理阶段以时间顺序进行加工。另一方面, 视觉词汇识别过程要经过通达字词正字法表征和通达意义两个阶段。由于该过程与书写系统有共同的正字法表征, 所以被称为共同表征假设。研究表明, 书写过程中不正确的正字法表征在阅读时不能被准确理解(王成, 尤文平, 张清芳, 2012)。但是, Guan, Liu, Chan, Ye和Perfetti (2011)则认为阅读和书写两者之间可能没有直接的因果关系, 而是通过某些第三变量互相联系的, 例如正字法知识、语音记忆能力等, 这表明额外变量可以显著地影响阅读和书写技能。Magrassi, Bongetta, Bianchini, Berardesca和Arienta (2010)等人发现, 刺激混合性失语症(拼写错误, 键盘录入困难)患者上顶叶的有限区域时, 会引起患者在拼写任务中的书写错误, 这种电刺激引起的书写错误与其接受刺激前的自发性书写错误相比较, 其阅读理解能力并没有发生变化, 这说明在某种程度上书写与阅读相互独立。

综上所述, 手写体文字与打印体文字在形态大小、字体结构等物理特性方面确实存在明显差异。那么, 手写体文字加工有什么特点呢?手写体文字加工的神经机制与打印体文字有哪些不同呢?已有的理论模型能不能很好地解释手写体文字的阅读呢?

研究发现, 识别难度大的字体会使阅读策略发生改变(Rayner, Reichle, Stroud, Williams, & Pollatsek, 2006)。宫殿坤、郝春东和王殿春(2009)研究了不同汉字字体对视觉搜索的影响。实验发现, 阅读宋体字的反应时明显比楷体字的反应时短。他们将该实验结果解释为, 相同字号的宋体字与楷体字相比, 在印刷时或屏幕上呈现时, 宋体字笔画更粗、字体更大, 更便于视觉搜索。另外, 他们还提出, 不同难度的刺激材料和不同难度的实验任务所对应的视觉搜索方式和信息加工模式(包括编码, 存储, 受控搜索/自由搜索, 和匹配过程)也不同, 即识别简单材料和完成简单任务只依靠本能, 其信息加工模式只涉及自由搜索阶段; 而识别困难材料和完成困难任务则需要依靠本能和意识, 信息加工模式涉及受控搜索阶段。陈琳、钟罗金、冷英和莫雷(2014)等人考察了汉语拼音的自动加工与语义加工对汉字字形激活的影响, 实验发现, 当进行拼音自动加工时, 汉字的字形信息未被激活; 而进行拼音语义加工时, 汉字字形信息被激活。这一结果与宫殿坤等人的研究一致。他们认为, 由于拼音基本不会出现在汉语母语者的阅读材料中, 所以其自动化加工程度较低, 因此, 加工拼音会消耗更多的认知资源。在手写体文字研究水平上, 沈模卫和朱祖祥(1995)发现, 打印体文字和手写体文字加工时的视觉特征提取存在差异。他们认为存在这种差异的原因是, 在字形识别系统中存在文字和文字特征相对应的觉察器网络。识别打印体文字时, 打印体文字的特征觉察器与相对应的字觉察器之间传递兴奋, 促进整字识别; 手写体文字识别时, 在字水平上不存在与打印体文字相对应的字觉察器, 所以对应的特征觉察器不能受到来自字的激活。可见, 随着文字识别难度增加, 文字加工系统会由自动加工转变为有意识参与的加工, 这种加工方式的转变使打印体文字与手写体文字在识别上存在很大差异。

研究者还对英语、西班牙语、阿拉伯语等手写体文字进行了研究。Perea, Gil-López, Beléndez和Carreiras (2016)等人以西班牙文字为实验材料研究了手写体文字的加工特点, 他们发现, 与打印体文字和简单手写体文字相比, 困难手写体文字的阅读成本更高(即更多的注视, 更长的注视持续时间和更短的眼跳距离)。Dinges, Al-Hamadi, Elzobi和El-etriby (2016)等人通过研究阿拉伯手写体文字发现, 在书写过程中, 有些单词的字母会被省略。那么, 与阅读打印体材料相比, 如果阅读包含省略字母的单词的手写体材料时, 读者需要花费更多的时间和上下文信息, 来识别阅读材料。

这些研究表明, 手写体文字的加工机制与打印体文字的加工机制可能存在差异。通过比较不同语言手写体文字识别的研究, 可以发现, 识别手写体文字所具有的共同特征和影响因素。另外, 神经机制的研究可以揭示加工手写体文字与打印体文字时, 其大脑机制的相同点和不同点。这种研究有助于更好地理解语言加工过程, 也有助于判断各种理论模型对手写体文字的解释能力。

2 文字物理特性对手写体文字识别的影响

2.1 文字的结构特征

文字结构是由文字的符号形式、语音、语义三者联系起来组成的, 是具有一定社会文化意义的结构范畴。其中, 汉字主要是由点和直线组成的方块字。汉字以平面布局的形式表达语音和语义信息。打印体汉字的笔画部件之间是相互协调的, 而手写体汉字的笔画结构灵活, 当其横竖笔画的组合方式、长短和分布位置不同时, 字形就会有不同表现形式。手写体汉字有较大的随意性, 一定程度上使其结构更加多变, 字形更加复杂。拼音文字的字母主要是由直线和圆弧组成的几何结构, 不同字母的外形不同, 有些字母有超出或低于其主体的部位, 增加了识别难度; 字母间的间隔随着字母形状不同而发生变化; 字母之间存在大小写的转换等特点。这些文字结构特征在以手写体文字形式呈现时可能会被放大或缩小, 进而影响文字的加工识别过程。

在识别加工过程中, 无论打印体文字还是手写体文字, 笔画数及笔画类型都会影响汉字的整体识别。与打印体汉字相比, 手写体汉字受书写者的书写习惯影响, 其笔画存在较大变异, 所以笔画对手写体汉字识别的影响更大。尤其当书写中出现连笔现象时, 会导致字体结构出现不同程度的缺失, 增加识别难度。不过, 即便字体结构存在如此大的变异, 熟练的读者依然可以顺利地对其进行识别。

对此, 金连文(2016)等人指出, 在汉字识别时, 存在“整体优先”的原则(视觉检测是一个由整体到局部的过程), 因此, 读者也能识别局部缺失的汉字。王静、薛成波和刘强(2018)也认为处理视觉信息时, 首先对物体的整体特征进行记忆提取, 然后再分别完成物体各部分特征的再现, 这样有利于提高加工效率。手写体文字虽然在物理特性等方面与打印体文字有明显差异, 但是作为汉字的一种特殊表现形式, 依然具有汉字的基本属性。汉字依靠形体结构表义, 这里的结构通常指感知的整体, 对结构的解析过程意味着文字识别进入高级认知阶段。基于汉字整体结构的规定, 各结构成分间相互依存, 离开了结构的整体框架, 成分的功能无法实现(臧克和, 2006)。常玉林、王丹烁和周蔚(2016)研究中将汉字部件位置和内容错误作为实验变量, 观察被试对整体或局部属性遭到破坏的文字的敏感性。他们发现从眼动指标来看, 在文字加工的早期阶段以特征加工为主, 晚期阶段则呈现整体加工的趋势; 从反应时指标上看, 整体加工是文字加工过程的主要方式。由此可以推测, 整体加工和特征加工都参与手写体文字的识别。

除了笔画数, 汉字的偏旁部首对词汇识别过程的影响也很大。汉字部首位置不同, 所提供的信息和其重要性也不同。多层次激活模型(multilevel interactive activation model, MIA)认为, 汉字结构中的笔画层次、偏旁部首(部件)层次在汉字识别过程中发挥着不同的作用。其中, 笔画层次信息中包含了笔画间的相对位置信息; 部件层次信息中包含了部件间的相对位置信息。MIA本质上是从特征加工角度揭示汉字识别中的笔画、偏旁部首和字体间的关系(管益杰, 李燕芳, 宋艳, 2006), 这与“整体优先”加工策略观点不同。Corcoran和Rouse (1970) 的研究结果再次证明了打印体文字和手写体文字的识别过程存在差异。与打印体文字相比, 手写体文字的变异性更高, 识别过程将花费更多的时间和精力。而Barnhart和Goldinger (2010)则认为, 在感知手写体文字时, 读者会自然地适应这种书写方式, 并且可以通过自上而下的反馈使手写体文字字体结构模糊性缺陷所带来的影响减弱。曾捷英、周新林和喻柏林(2001)研究了经过劣化处理(对汉字进行了水平方向和垂直方向的压缩)的汉字, 改变汉字的通透性, 提出了通透性中介假设, 即字形属性不直接影响文字识别, 而是以文字通透性作为中介间接影响文字识别。通透性中介假设可以用来解释笔画类型效应和部件位置效应。该假设可以解释各种字形属性效应产生的原因。那么, 手写体文字的识别是否可以用通透性中介假设来解释呢?尽管, 手写体文字与经过劣化处理的文字在字形属性上存在相似特征, 但是, 劣化处理的文字是经过水平或垂直压缩的, 其变化方式遵循一定规则, 与手写体汉字的变异性是不同的, 因此, 通透性中介假设不完全适用于解释手写体文字识别。

除了文字的笔画数及其结构的影响外, 正字法深度也会影响手写体文字的识别。正字法深度(Orthographic Depth), 是指字体的形态结构与音位结构之间的一致性程度。深的正字法容易使读者使用视觉码(如字母特征、序列和字符空格等)来加工词汇, 而浅的正字法容易使读者采用表面音位策略(能够借助文字的声符实现语义通达)。由于汉字的正字法深度比拼音文字深, 读者就容易使用视觉码加工词汇, 识别词汇所消耗的时间比拼音文字短(印丛, 王娟, 张积家, 2011)。Chen和Cherng (2013)以中文手写体词汇作为研究对象, 探究影响汉字识别过程的主要因素。结果发现, 汉字的偏旁部首和语素(语音和语义的结合体, 是词语的组成部分)对汉字识别有预测效应, 笔画则对其没有预测效应。在他们提出的关于中文手写体文字的加工模型中, 只有部件和语素被看作是功能单元(手写体文字的处理单元), 而笔画在文字加工中只发挥微弱作用, 因此笔画对汉字识别的预测效应可以忽略不计。在阅读汉字时, 颞叶和前侧顶叶会被激活, 并将文字以图形的方式映射到词素和音节水平上(Perfetti & Tan, 2013), 这说明, 汉字以类似图形的方式进行加工。上述结果表明, 手写体文字的加工具有书写系统变异的普遍性。Zhang和Feng (2017)通过实验检验了偏旁部首和词法对汉字手写体文字的影响。他们认为, 在书写过程中若排除其他因素, 只考虑文字的笔画因素, 多笔画条件下的书写速度比少笔画条件下慢。汉字部件复杂性也会影响书写过程中的书写速度和非笔画的移动速度(非笔画长度与时间间隔之比), 尤其在书写分布在部首边界的笔画时, 书写速度明显减慢。由此可见, 手写体文字加工的中央处理和外围处理过程受词法和部件复杂性影响。

手写体文字物理结构的特殊性区别于打印体文字, 导致了加工上的差异, 接下来将探讨手写体文字的文字结构与非文字图形识别相比有何差异。Tan, Spinks, Eden, Perfetti和Siok (2005)发现在书写运动系统(受书写运动与言语刺激共同作用的促进文字表征的认知系统)中, 假字识别和其他涉及精确协调的运动(绘画)也与阅读有关, 但在一定程度上, 绘画要求更高的阅读表现能力。在识别简单图形(圆形或者三角形)时, 其物理特征能够被无意识加工, 甚至还能达到语义加工水平(柯学, 白学军, 隋南, 2004)。这与手写体文字自上而下的加工方式有所不同。关于视觉图形加工, 柯学、白学军和隋南(2008)认为图形的局部形状特征加工与整体形状加工会相互影响。一方面, 当注意落到局部形状特征时, 语义图形的意义将被激活, 但是该过程将会抑制整体形状信息的加工, 另一方面, 对图形整体形状信息的优先加工会干扰对局部形状信息的加工。在手写体文字中, 笔画、部首、字母等作为文字组成的一部分, 对文字识别加工过程的影响是单向的, 即文字的局部特征对整字识别有影响。周爱保、张学民、舒华和何立国(2005)认为文字识别时, 会经历字体形状与经验中熟悉的心理模型相匹配的过程。而在识别简笔画类型的图片时, 个体也要先搜索已有的经验图式, 才能进行有效识别(胡学平, 孙继民, 曹蕊, 姚温青, 王美珠, 2014)。因此, 手写体文字的加工过程既有特异性, 又有与非文字图形加工过程的共性。

总之, 文字物理结构的复杂性使个体在识别加工手写体文字时表现出区别于识别打印体文字的过程。手写体汉字的偏旁部首和其位置信息变化导致的字体总变异需要更多自上而下的加工参与, 增加了识别难度, 延长了识别时间。

2.2 文字的书写风格

每个人的书写习惯和书写方式不同, 所以写出的字体风格也不尽相同。因此, 在研究手写体文字识别时, 要考虑到手写体文字的书写风格对手写体文字加工的影响。金连文等(2016)提出在汉字识别过程中, 汉字的识别程度与个体的阅读水平和对字体的熟悉程度有关。由于书写风格不同, 有的手写体汉字连笔较多, 有的连笔较少。对连笔汉字不熟悉的个体, 较难识别这类手写体汉字。另外, 手写体汉字的倾斜度也会影响汉字识别。Vajda, Ranqoni和Cecotti (2015)认为, 在某种程度上旋转简单字符的形状不会改变该字符所代表的含义。但是, Dinges, Al-Hamadi, Elzobi, El-etriby和Ghoneim (2015)等人发现, 在加工单个字母或由字母组成的单词时, 旋转会扰乱单词和文本行的识别过程。Qiao等 (2010)等人在大脑激活水平上进行研究也发现, 无论是阅读简单手写体文字还是困难手写体汉字, 旋转都对文字的语义识别具有显著影响。对此, Barnhart和Goldinger (2013)进行了更加具体的研究, 探究了手写体词汇向任意方向旋转90°时的加工特点。他们发现, 手写体文字旋转会造成感知不对称, 在对比了打印体文字与手写体文字沿不同方向旋转后发现, 沿顺时针方向旋转比沿逆时针方向旋转对词汇识别的影响更大。另外, 他们还指出, 当手写体文字的旋转方向与其内部特征相反时, 被试往往不能对词汇信息进行感知。

文字的书写风格也受文化的影响, 进而影响手写体文字的识别。Diaz-Cabrera, Ferrer和Morales (2015)在研究西方人签名的具体特征时发现, 大部分人的签名呈现整体椭圆轮廓, 且右侧部分略小于左侧部分。产生这种现象可能是因为书写是从左向右的顺序引起的。另外, 他们还认为不同地理区域的个体展示其签名的形式不同。例如, 有些地理区域的人, 倾向于写下全名和姓氏, 有些则偏向于用字母缩写代替。Rosso, Ospina和Frery (2016)通过实验研究发现, 签名的形成涉及到大脑从长期记忆中恢复信息这一过程, 但是该过程不涉及提取字体细节特征(例如:大小, 形状等)。所以, 个体的签名风格一旦确定之后不会轻易地随着时间的推移而发生变化。

不同个体书写的字符形状和大小存在不均匀性, 倾斜存在不同程度, 导致识别难易不同(Mukhopadhyay, Singh, Sarkar, & Nasipuri, 2018)。因此, Qiao等 (2010)基于行为实验将实验材料进行了区分, 即简单手写体和困难手写体(书写规范和书写不规范)。他们发现在识别困难手写体时, 需要额外的注意参与自上而下的加工, 并且在手写体文字加工的早期阶段, 词汇信息对处理模糊视觉刺激起着很大作用, 而困难手写体文字的词汇信息提取较难, 导致该阶段阅读成本增加。Qiao等人的实验表明, 困难手写体文字识别所需的连续注意只有在有意识地识别目标词时才能被触发。另外, 他们认为不管是识别困难手写体文字还是简单手写体文字都不存在行为启动过程, 一方面是因为困难手写体文字的识别缺乏自动性, 而且不参与注意驱动的串行解码; 另一方面, 是由于简单手写体文字的识别对行为的影响微乎其微, 所以视觉系统不能对它们进行有效的处理。但是, 关于手写体文字的识别时间比打印体文字的识别时间长这一问题, Perea和Gil-López等(2016)认为, 这是因为在识别困难手写体文字时, 呈现出的词频效应比简单手写体文字和打印体文字的更加显著; 并且识别手写体文字时, 会出现阅读成本, 再加上文本和词频效应的相加性, 所以, 手写体文字的识别时间比打印体文字的识别时间长。

关于书写风格对字迹(文字书写时的笔画形体)识别影响的研究发现, 手写体文字的整体书写风格对文字的识别过程有显著影响, 其影响具体表现在反应时和准确性上, 当书写风格不一致时, 识别时间更短, 准确性更高。大多数研究者将此解释为, 被试利用书写风格间的显著差异快速判断前后字迹是否具有一致性, 也就是说, 书写风格一致性越高, 要获取的字体特征信息越多, 反应时就越长(黄志平, 2012)。关于手写体文字的识别模式, 结合阅读实验中的各种眼动指标的分析后发现, 在手写体文字识别过程中优先使用整体识别策略, 当使用这种策略识别失败时, 会采用图像识别策略, 即识别单个字迹的具体特征, 再次印证了手写体文字识别加工受整体加工和特征加工的共同作用。

综上所述, 手写体文字模糊的物理结构, 多变的书写角度, 书写不规范性等因素使其加工识别方式与打印体文字存在差异。手写体文字模糊的物理结构主要影响语义加工过程, 结构改变越大, 识别难度越大, 语义加工花费时间越长; 书写角度则主要影响视觉信息的提取过程, 当手写体文字书写角度与文字的内部表征相反时, 对视觉信息提取越困难; 书写风格影响手写体文字的识别加工过程, 具体表现为困难手写体比简单手写体和打印体有更大的阅读成本。

3 文字语言特性对手写体文字识别的影响

3.1 文字的词汇特性

文字在语言中的应用以词汇为主, 文字通过词汇特性展现其作用, 即词汇效应。词汇效应按照词汇的具体特性可以分为:笔画数效应、正字法相邻效应等; 按照语言因素分类包括:词频效应、预测性效应、熟悉度效应、语义透明度效应等。De Zuniga, Humphreys和Evett (1991)认为在词汇水平上, 打印体词汇和手写体词汇的识别存在词频效应(低频词加工比高频词加工更困难, 更费时间)。Perea和Gil-López等(2016)认为, 手写体文字词频效应产生的主要原因是, 手写体文字固有的物理变异性或者难以加工的模糊字形。他们发现实验材料的质量(一种感知因素)对词频效应有影响。同一文本内容下, 实验材料质量越差, 阅读中的词频效应越显著, 即手写体文字会放大阅读中的词频效应, 低频手写体文字相对于高频手写体文字和打印体文字有更大的词频效应, 这是因为实验材料质量和词频作用于文字识别加工的不同阶段, 实验材料质量影响文字识别加工的早期阶段, 而词频影响文字识别加工的晚期阶段(Balota, Aschenbrenner, & Yap, 2013)。也就是说手写体文字的物理变异性和模糊字形对词汇效应都有影响。不过, Coltheart, Curtis, Atkins和Haller (1993)等人通过词汇命名实验发现, 只有在命名低频词时才出现词频效应。Perea, Marcet, Uixera和Vergara-Martínez (2016)通过分析被试阅读手写体句子和打印体句子时的眼动指标(包括凝视时间, 首次注视持续时间, 总注视时间等)后发现, 困难手写体的词频放大效应主要表现在晚期眼动指标(总阅读时间)上; 困难手写体句子中的目标词有更高的回视概率, 但与总阅读时间没有显著交互作用, 仅通过时间与总阅读时间有显著交互作用, 也就是说, 困难手写体的词频效应很大程度上来源于重读的累积效应。

Barnhart和Goldinger (2010)De Zuniga等(1991)的实验为基础, 在实验中, 增加了相应的实验条件, 发现(1)在手写体文字条件下, 模糊的视觉特征使词频效应增加; (2)当词汇以手写体形式呈现时, 低频手写体词汇产生的词频效应明显大于高频手写体词汇和打印体词汇, 高频手写体词汇与打印体词汇的词频效应相比无明显差异。总之, 词汇的词频对手写体词汇识别有显著影响, 而这种影响可能是由字体的分布偏移和倾斜造成的。阅读时, 高频词常以打印体文字形式呈现, 因此, 当相同的高频词以手写体文字形式出现时, 往往不能直接实现词汇通达, 读者会固着于打印体文字的识别模式, 对手写体文字的字形特征进行再判断。

另外, Perea和Gil-López等(2016)在仔细分析了反应时和反应时分布认为, 手写体文字的物理特性更多地依赖自上而下的加工过程。当手写体文字的物理模糊性较高时, 读者阅读过程中的词汇效应会被放大(Barnhart & Goldinger, 2010)。另外, 由于手写体文字形状多变, 没有典型特征, 与打印体文字自下而上的加工相比, 完成词汇通达需要更长时间(Qiao, et al., 2010)。

Perea和Marcet等(2016)在分析眼动指标时发现, 不同文本类型目标词词频效应的差异主要反映在晚期眼动指标上, 即在总注视时间上有显著差异, 手写体文字的总注视时间明显比打印体文字的总注视时间长。De Zuniga等(1991)将手写体与打印体间的整体差异归因于发生在字母水平上的“规范化加工”, 即当整体与特征在加工过程的视觉环境中相互作用时, 会随着视觉环境的改变变换其加工方式的过程。他们认为, 当阅读难处理的手写体文字时, “规范化加工”将发挥作用, 所以在此过程中出现的额外加工成本会使阅读手写体文字的总注视时间变长。Barnhart和Goldinger (2015)通过词汇命名实验范式检验了四种不同条件下的字体(包含打印体和手写体), 实验结果表明, 打印体条件和手写体条件正字法相邻效应(The orthographic neighborhood effect, 即相邻的词汇越多, 目标词的识别速度越快)都稳定存在, 但是, 手写体文字的正字法相邻效应则比打印体文字的更加显著。这在一定程度上证明了手写体文字字形结构的不稳定性和相邻手写体文字字形的熟悉度会影响正字法相邻效应。

3.2 文字的语境特性

手写体词汇的识别加工研究之后, 逐渐将研究方向扩展到了手写体句子的研究上, 并且, 发现阅读语境对手写体文字加工也会产生影响。Perea和Marcet等(2016)将嵌入高频词和低频词的手写体句子作为实验材料, 详细记录并分析了被试的眼动数据, 揭示了手写体句子与打印体句子在阅读时的差异。他们认为在句子阅读的总体水平上, 手写体句子的阅读成本比打印体句子的阅读成本更大, 需要的注视时间更长。在局部水平上, 句子中的手写低频目标词的注视次数比手写高频目标词和打印体的高/低频目标词的注视次数多, 但手写高频目标词与打印体的高/低频目标词的注视次数无明显差异。

Dinges等(2016)考察了不同文本条件下, 文字识别的策略。他们发现, 识别手写体文字时读者主要采用分割决策策略, 这种策略指, 文本中相邻文字合并识别的方法, 若其中一种合并方式识别失败, 则会尝试其它合并方式, 直到识别成功为止。Dinges等(2015)认为在涉及手写体文本识别任务的上下文中, 被试会选择自上而下的加工方式。由于特定的语境能够消除文字识别过程中的歧义干扰, 所以, 当识别手写体文字时, 阅读语境作用于手写体文字识别的自上而下的加工过程, 缩短了手写体文字的识别时间(Barnhart & Goldinger, 2015)。总之, 他们认为手写体文字的识别受到前后语境的影响。

文字的语境特性的习得受视觉系统和运动系统的共同影响。Gordon, Spivey和Balasubramaniam (2017)通过实验研究发现, 运动系统与文字的习得相关, 说明运动系统影响包括手写体文字在内的书面语言的学习过程。文字识别中, 视觉系统对文字进行提取和加工, 同时运动系统也影响文字识别。个体在学习文字过程中, 要经历一个手写文字的过程。手写的动作产生了对所写文字的视觉空间记忆和书写运动记忆。这种运动记忆在不断的书写练习强化下转变为长时记忆, 由于该记忆是与视觉表征相联系储存的, 所以, 在知觉文字和字符识别的过程中会激活手写的运动记忆(Cao et al., 2013)。Li和James (2016)通过儿童书写训练的实验研究揭示了, 在书写过程中, 由于运动与感知系统存在直接联系, 书写动作实际上会增强被试对书写内容的理解。也就是说, 手写与文本内容间的联系是由脑-躯体-环境相互作用引起的, 环境信息输入系统造成大脑对信息的加工发生改变, 表现为运动系统对手写体文字的作用比打印体文字的作用更大。

综上所述, 手写体文字的视觉模糊性特征放大了词频效应, 具体表现为, 低频手写体词汇比高频手写体词汇更难识别; 手写体文字的字形结构和字形熟悉度使其正字法相邻效应比打印体文字更显著; 文字的语境通过消除阅读中的歧义来影响手写体文字的加工过程。与打印体文字识别相比, 手写体文字的识别受到语言特性更大的影响。

4 手写体文字识别加工的神经机制

关于文字识别的神经机制, 有关打印体文字的研究表明, 语言加工(包括文字和口语的识别)和语义记忆检索(包括分类和生成)主要集中在左前额叶和颞叶区域。这些区域的大脑活动也与文字理解和语义通达有关。其中, 文字理解将激活左颞叶区域, 语义通达激活前额叶皮层(Cabeza & Nyberg, 2000)。研究认为视觉“词形”的具体身份识别区域位于左内侧纹外皮层, 中间颞叶皮层, 或左颞叶和梭形脑回。王磊、杨丽川、孟千力和马原野(2018)认为由视网膜、上丘脑、丘脑结节和杏仁核构成的视觉皮层下通路负责对视觉信息的整体性质进行快速加工处理。但是, 不同形式的书面文字, 大脑的激活区域和激活模式存在差异。在汉字书写中, 笔画和部件作为文字的内部结构会形成一种高阶组织, 该过程将手写的运动模式与语言相联系, 有利于形成关于汉字书写动作的长期记忆, 这种运动记忆将促进认知系统对文字表征的巩固过程, 并且不会干扰手写体汉字内部结构的识别(Tan et al., 2005)。当被试阅读文字时, 手写体文字也会激活手写过程的动作加工(李辉, 王晶颖, 2016)。一方面, E-Z读者模型认为, 在L1 (文字的熟悉度检验阶段)阶段, 注意参与将视觉信息由视网膜传送到大脑皮层的过程, 继而调动手写体文字书写笔画、部件的运动记忆, 使其参与手写体文字的熟悉性程度的判断过程。另一方面, E-Z读者模型认为早期的视觉信息被平行加工, 通过注意所获取的视觉信息对之后的加工都有效(胡笑羽, 刘海建, 刘丽萍, 臧传丽, 白学军, 2007)。而手写体文字的物理特性会影响整体的感知, 所以相对于加工相同数量的打印体文字, 其加工时间更长。Bolger, Perfetti和Schneider (2005)通过元分析技术研究发现, 书写系统会激活一个强大的脑皮层区域网络, 这个网络主要是由大脑皮层中的三个区域构建而成:(1)左上颞叶后回(中/前部; BA22); (2)左下额叶回(上后区BA6); (3)左枕叶后回(两部分:后梭形/下枕骨区域[BA19]和中间梭状回)。另外, 由于不同种类的视觉刺激在高阶视觉水平上共享潜在的神经回路, 所以尽管单个的书写系统对应某一类视觉刺激, 也不能否认视觉信息与书写系统存在紧密联系。Longcamp, Anton, Roth和Velay (2003)等人发现, 当个体看到字母时, 手写过程中的动作加工被激活。Tan等(2005)通过研究儿童学习过程后发现, 在书写过程中, 儿童会将文字分解成特定的笔画和部件, 然后再将它们重新组合成新的语言单位。他们假设书写会促进正字法意识的发展, 进而对阅读习得产生积极的影响。MIA认为, 汉字加工有处理正字法信息和处理语音信息的两条通路, 其中正字法通路负责加工笔画、偏旁部首等部件层信息, 各层之间包含大量由不同单元构成的联结。当汉字以视觉方式呈现时, 将从笔画、部件到整字依次被激活, 直到整字激活到达阈值, 汉字即被识别(严建雯, 孙善麟, 2005)。这就解释了在学习汉字过程中, 儿童通过文字笔画、部件的分解和重新组合过程逐渐形成正字法意识, 并在视觉系统和运动记忆系统形成记忆的原因。但是MIA的本质是特征加工, 没有详细解释文字识别的整体过程, 并且它遵循自上而下每次加工一个输入项目的原则, 而手写体文字既包含自上而下加工, 又包含自下而上加工, 因此, MIA不能完全解释手写体文字识别加工过程。Magrassi等(2010)研究了失写症患者关于文字加工的神经机制。失写症一方面指在书写中字母形状良好但拼写不准确; 另一方面指书写时字母形状不规范并且无法通过练习改善。他们在手术中, 只对患者的上部顶叶进行电刺激, 而没有影响大脑皮层其他区域的正常活动。手术后发现这种刺激会造成中央和外围的书写错误, 这表明书写所涉及的运动和言语加工与上顶叶皮层的有限区域相关。

Hellige和Adamson (2007)发现, 在文字识别过程中, 大脑的两个半球均参与文字加工过程, 但由于视觉的复杂性, 使得大脑右半球对识别手写体文字的作用更大。Nakamura等(2012)研究了个体阅读手写体文字的过程后指出, 熟练阅读普遍依赖于后左半球网络, 该网络中的下顶叶和上级皮质层主要与打印体文字的识别相关, 枕叶视觉字形分析区域(VWFA)主要负责对手写体文字进行感知分析, 并且对手写体文字中字形清晰的字符串反应更敏感。SWIFT模型对此进行了解释, 在文字识别过程中, 对激活区域进行空间分配加工, 即以文字的激活程度竞争为基础(隋雪, 沈彤, 吴琼, 李莹, 2013), 清晰的字符串的激活竞争更强, 所以, 对此反应更敏感。Nakamura等(2012)假设成熟的阅读网络包括VWFA和运动手势解码系统, 而阅读网络又可以根据书写系统的可变性需求进行调节。他们在实验中运用了功能性磁共振成像技术, 记录了被试阅读正常手写体文字和经过空间扭曲的草书手写体文字时的脑区激活情况, 结果表明, 相较于未经加工处理的手写体文字, 空间扭曲的文字激活了双侧枕叶后区, 后侧顶叶皮层(PPC)和外侧前额叶(PMd)区域, 说明大脑对文字的加工是随着字体的变化而变化的。最后, 他们认为手写体文字能够无意识地快速驱动VWFA来识别格式正确的字符串, 但是当目标词是经过空间扭曲的文字时, 这种快速的视觉编码系统将不再被启动, 并且其阅读速度与正常字形相比明显减慢。E-Z读者模型的假定是, 词汇后整合阶段的失败导致了对之前信息的回视(Reichle, Warren, & McConnell, 2009), 这说明空间扭曲文字相较于手写体文字来说, 其信息在运动系统和VWFA中没有相应的匹配, 从而导致信息整合失败, 产生回视, 使阅读速度减慢。手写体文字的书写过程能帮助建立关于文字识别加工的“视觉空间结构”和“字形表征”, 从而引起更多感觉运动信息与文字认知之间的相互作用, 促进语义通达(李辉, 王晶颖, 2016)。Cao等 (2013)实验研究发现, 被试文字识别任务中的表现在手写体文字条件下更优秀, 他们认为在手写体文字条件下, 文字表征的质量更高, 这种高质量的文字表征有利于后期文字的识别。由于手写笔迹会对陌生字形产生提示线索, 因此, 可以说手写体文字的识别相较于打印体文字, 更多地涉及到视觉空间记忆与运动记忆的共同作用, 从而使手写体文字的识别更容易。

图形识别的脑成像研究显示, 形状知觉引起与物体识别相关的腹侧通路(初级视觉皮层-次级视觉皮层-高级视觉皮层-颞下回-额叶)兴奋, 空间位置知觉则会引起与运动和空间位置相关的背侧通路(中颞区-顶叶-额叶)兴奋, 形状空间位置知觉引起腹侧通路和背侧通路并行协作(周群等, 2005)。手写体文字识别加工涉及的脑区与图形识别相关联的空间位置知觉涉及的脑区大致相同, 因此, 手写体文字识别与图形识别在一定程度上有相同的模式。

相对于打印体文字, 手写体文字的识别更多地涉及到大脑右半球脑区; 在识别过程中, VWFA首先对手写体文字的字形进行感知分析, 并在广泛的双侧皮质层网络中引起重复抑制, 这些网络不仅涉及枕叶、外侧额叶等一般阅读脑区, 还涉及到具有文化特异性的阅读脑区, 即左侧前额叶皮质(BA9)周围, 左侧PMd, 双侧PPC, 它们共同构成一个高度互联的网络, 与行为结果紧密并行, 完成对手写体文字的加工。另一方面, 对阅读的习得开始于对文字图形严格的视觉空间分析, 然后将组合后的笔画和部件映射到正字法意义和语言学意义, 该映射过程的发展是通过重复书写单个字符的形式来促进对文字的视觉分析, 并建立长期记忆表征实现的(Tan, Xu, Chang, & Siok, 2013)。因此, 手写体文字对促进学习字形形成与文字理解有重要意义。

5 研究展望

大多数情况下, 成年人通过计算机输入文字并使用文字处理程序及其他便捷工具进行文字加工, 但是这种由键盘输入的文字与原始手写体文字之间存在较大的物理特性上的差异, 这种差异影响文字识别加工过程。研究手写体文字的识别加工过程将丰富文字识别加工领域的研究。本文着重从词汇、句子和书写风格等方面分析了手写体文字识别的特点, 并且比较了手写体文字与打印体文字识别过程中的具体差异, 发现手写体文字识别既涉及整体加工策略, 也涉及特征加工策略。关于加工的脑机制, 除了涉及到加工打印体文字的脑区, 手写体文字加工还涉及到了双侧枕叶后区、后侧PPC、外侧PMd。由于现在对手写体文字的研究还很有限, 依然有很多问题有待解决。

首先, 对手写体文字识别机制缺乏具体的理论解释。MIA认为识别文字时是通过分解文字的笔画、偏旁部首, 并利用其位置信息进行特征加工, 但手写体文字的笔画和部件位置会随着书写者的书写习惯发生变化, 并不固定, 所以MIA不能完全的解释手写体文字的识别。双通道理论认为实现词汇通达有两条途径, 即词形-词义和词形-语音-词义(Xu, Pollatsek, & Potter, 1999), 两条途径中所包含的词形加工是针对打印体文字的字形, 没有单独考察手写体文字的字形特征是否适用于该过程。对此, Planton, Jucla, Roux和Demonet (2013)等人认为同其他语言技能相比, 对健康被试书写时的功能性脑成像技术的研究还不充分, 因此, 难以建立可以解释手写体文字阅读的神经功能模型。现有大多数理论都是以打印体文字识别为基础提出来的, 而手写体文字与打印体文字具有显著的特征差异, 现有的理论不完全适用于解释手写体文字的识别过程, 因此, 在未来的研究中, 要考虑建立解释手写体文字识别的理论。

其次, 关于大脑怎样处理手写体文字中嘈杂的视觉信息(即妨碍视觉器官对信息加工的因素)这个问题, 现阶段还没有明确的结论。由于手写体文字的识别加工涉及到许多过程, 通过分析输入的感官信息, 其视觉分析系统和视觉输入系统对这些信息进行集中加工, 并输入到与目标词有关的知识语义系统中(Planton, Jucla, Roux, & Demonet, 2013)。李宁和梁宁建(2014)认为汉字的通透性(即, 笔画之间的水平距离, 垂直距离以及对称关系)主导汉字字形加工。他们研究发现, 笔画之间离散程度越大, 对称性越高, 则笔画越清晰, 形码的知觉速度越快, 越符合局部格式塔假设; 另一方面, 整字字形越对称, 整体格式塔越明显, 所以, 对称字字形加工明显优于非对称字字形加工。因此, 需要深入探究当手写体文字的字形通透性在各水平上出现差异时, 大脑是怎样区分其字形特征并对其进行识别的。为解决手写体文字识别过程中视觉信息与大脑活动之间的关系, 未来应该尝试结合使用脑电设备和眼动设备, 探究出手写体文字加工的神经生理机制和识别加工模型。

最后, 实验室实验不能满足研究手写体文字识别所需要的环境条件。非实验室条件下通过书面形式传达信息, 而实验室实验中被试识别的手写体文字往往是通过电脑屏幕以呈现图片的方式传递文字信息, 这种方式是被试所陌生的, 因此, 会对实验过程产生一定的影响。另外, 手写体文字的识别会受到许多变量的影响, 而这些变量很难在实验室条件下模拟出来, 所以会对实验效度造成影响。

字符识别的研究不管是在认知心理学还是语言学领域都有很多成熟的理论模型作支撑, 但这些理论的建立大多数以打印体文字为研究对象, 所以研究手写体文字识别将会拓展字符识别的研究范围, 丰富文字识别的研究内容。而且, 手写体文字在日常生活中使用广泛, 对其识别加工过程的研究有利于提高课堂教学质量, 研发计算机识别技术等, 所以研究手写体文字的识别是非常必要的。

参考文献

陈琳, 钟罗金, 冷英, 莫雷 . ( 2014).

拼音自动加工和语义加工中汉字字形的激活

心理学报, 46( 11), 1661-1670.

DOI:10.3724/SP.J.1041.2014.01661      URL     [本文引用: 1]

4个实验分别探讨了拼音自动加工和语义加工中汉字字形的激活情况。实验1和实验2采用启动范式考察拼音自动加工中汉字字形的激活情况。实验3和实验4考察拼音语义加工中汉字字形的激活情况。实验结果表明:在拼音自动加工过程中未出现字形的启动效应,说明在拼音自动加工过程中可能未激活汉字字形信息;在拼音语义加工过程中出现了字形的启动效应,说明在拼音语义加工过程中激活了汉字字形信息。

常玉林, 王丹烁, 周蔚 . ( 2016).

字形判断过程中的整体与局部优先效应: 来自反应时和眼动指标的证据

心理科学, 39( 5), 1040-1044.

URL     [本文引用: 1]

本文采用4(字形)x2(字号)的组内设计,对各条件的反应时、首次注视和总注视时间进行分析,从而探讨汉字识别整体或局部优先的问题。无论字号大小,部件位置错误条件的反应时均显著短于部件内容错误。小号字在部件位置和内容错误条件的首次注视时间差异不显著。大号字在部件位置错误条件的首次注视时间显著长于部件内容错误。部件位置错误条件总注视时间均显著短于部件内容错误。以上结果暗示了汉字识别中整体和局部加工存在不同的时间进程。

管益杰, 李燕芳, 宋艳 . ( 2006).

汉字字形加工的关键特征模型

山东师范大学学报(人文社会科学版), 51( 2), 126-129.

DOI:10.3969/j.issn.1001-5973.2006.02.026      URL     [本文引用: 1]

现有的汉字识别模型对汉字的字形加工过程并没有达成共识。争论的焦点是汉字识别中的字形加工究竟是特征分析还是整字加工占优势。汉字字形加工中采用的是任务引导的识别策略,汉字字形加工的关键特征验证模型包括了汉字字形加工过程中的自上而下和自下而上两种信息加工,强调识别过程中根据字形的关键特征的验证。

宫殿坤, 郝春东, 王殿春 . ( 2009).

字体特征与搜索方式对视觉搜索反应时的影响

心理科学, 32( 5), 1142-1145.

[本文引用: 1]

胡学平, 孙继民, 曹蕊, 姚温青, 王美珠 . ( 2014).

实物形状的知觉相似性对视觉隐喻加工的影响

心理学报, 46( 5), 607-620.

[本文引用: 1]

胡笑羽, 刘海健, 刘丽萍, 臧传丽, 白学军 . ( 2007).

E-Z阅读者模型的新进展

心理学探新, 27( 1), 24- 29, 40.

DOI:10.3969/j.issn.1003-5184.2007.01.006      URL     [本文引用: 1]

该文介绍了以序列加工假设为基础的眼动控制模型——E-Z阅读者模型的基本内容和最新进展(模型6-9)。新的E-Z阅读者模型可以有效解释阅读过程中认知加工的眼动控制机制。随着研究的深入,E-Z阅读者模型的结构不断发展完善,而且还促进了许多新的眼动研究。

黄志平 . ( 2012). 字迹风格对字迹识别影响的眼动研究(硕士学位论文). 西安: 第四军医大学.

[本文引用: 1]

金连文, 钟卓耀, 杨钊, 杨维信, 谢泽澄, 孙俊 . ( 2016).

深度学习在手写汉字识别中的应用综述

自动化学报, 42( 8), 1125-1141.

[本文引用: 2]

柯学, 白学军, 隋南 . ( 2004).

视知觉无意识加工中的形状优势效应

心理科学, 27( 2), 321-324.

DOI:10.3969/j.issn.1671-6981.2004.02.020      URL     [本文引用: 1]

研究了视知觉无意识加工中是否存在形状优势效应。被试为天津师范大学本科生60名。仪器为pentiurnⅢ高分辨率计算机,程序用E-prime心理实验软件系统编制而成。在实验1中.用信号检测论技术发现,当启动图形呈现时间为20ms时,被试是不能觉知到该图形的。在实验2和3中,被试的任务分别是判断图形的形状和颜色,用MANOVA分析启动图形计靶图形的启动效应时发现,启动图形的颜色线索不会影响靶图形的形状判断,但启动图形的形状线索却能抑制或促进靶图形的颜色判断。实验证据提示,在判断物体整体特征时,无意识知觉具有形状优势效应。

柯学, 白学军, 隋南 . ( 2008).

视知觉无意识对局部形状和颜色特征加工的注意调节

心理科学, 31( 2), 336-339.

[本文引用: 1]

李宁, 梁宁建 . ( 2014).

多层次格式塔双向加工模型: 汉字输入中形码的认知加工机制

心理与行为研究, 12( 4), 441-446.

[本文引用: 1]

李辉, 王晶颖 . ( 2016).

汉字加工神经机制的特异性与一般性问题

当代语言学, 18( 4), 568-580.

URL     [本文引用: 2]

本文首先综述了汉字加工神经机制的最新研究进展,重点关注三个问题:(1)汉字加工的神经中枢;(2)网络通路;(3)神经机制的一般性和特异性特点。得出了两个主要结论:(1)左侧前额叶中部,尤其是BA9,可能是汉字加工的中枢;(2)汉字与拼音文字阅读具有不同的脑网络通路。随后,研究总结了汉字书写加工的神经机制、书写与拼音打字的差异、镜像神经元研究等汉字加工的最新进展。最后,批判性地分析了有关汉字加工的通用机制与特异机制的争议问题。

沈模卫, 朱祖祥 . ( 1995).

整体汉字字形识别过程探索

应用心理学, ( 2), 43-48.

[本文引用: 1]

隋雪, 沈彤, 吴琼, 李莹 . ( 2013).

阅读眼动控制模型的中文研究——串行和并行

辽宁师范大学学报(社会科学版), ( 5), 672-679.

URL     [本文引用: 1]

阅读的眼动控制理论不断发展,其中有两个眼动控制模型对阅读的影响最大,分别是代表串行加工模式的E-Z读者模型和代表并行加工模式的SWIFT模型。总结中文阅读相关的眼动研究,发现了许多中文阅读研究中串行与并行眼动理论模型的研究证据,主要涉及中文阅读的知觉广度、副中央凹-中央凹效应、副中央凹的预视效应等几个方面的内容。未来中文阅读研究中需要注意的问题是:(1)词频不光有语义特性,也存在字形上的特性,因此词频不适合成为研究语义加工阶段的自变量;(2)研究中字形、字号的平衡十分重要;(3)位于中央凹左侧的词也可以作为研究对象;(4)应更加注重中文阅读模型的完善与建立。

印丛, 王娟, 张积家 . ( 2011).

汉语言语产生中语音、字形启动的位置效应

心理学报, 43( 9), 1002-1012.

DOI:10.3724/SP.J.1041.2011.01002      URL     [本文引用: 1]

以起始掩蔽启动效应(the Masked Onset Priming Effect,简称MOP效应)为研究背景,通过3个实验,考察了语音和字形在MOP效应产生中的作用,以及在汉语单字词产生中语音、字形启动的位置效应。实验1表明,在汉语单字词的产生中,语音启动的位置效应显著,声母启动的效应量显著大于韵母启动的效应量,与拼音文字研究得到的MOP效应类似,说明在MOP效应中至少包含有语音效应。汉字单字词语音编码的最小单位是音位,而且具有从左到右序列加工的特点,支持言语产生的"音节临时形成论"。实验2表明,与目标字左、右部件相同的启动刺激均能促进掩蔽启动范式中的命名反应,被试对与启动字的右部件相同的目标字的反应显著快于对与启动字的左部件相同的目标字的反应,与起始掩蔽启动效应的假设相反,说明在MOP效应中不包含有字形的作用,却发现了汉字单字词特有的命名的字形位置效应:右部件启动的效应量大于左部件启动的效应量。实验3采用图-词干扰范式对汉字左、右部件的启动效应做了进一步的探讨,仍然发现汉字右部件启动的效应量显著大于汉字左部件启动的效应量。整个研究表明,MOP效应是单纯的语音效应,并不包含有字形的作用;MOP效应产生于言语产生中的语音编码阶段,支持言语计划理论的观点。

王成, 尤文平, 张清芳 . ( 2012).

书写产生过程的认知机制

心理科学进展, 20( 10), 1560-1572.

[本文引用: 1]

王磊, 杨丽川, 孟千力, 马原野 . ( 2018).

上丘-丘脑枕结节-杏仁核视觉皮层下通路及其生物学意义

生理学报, 70( 1), 79-84.

[本文引用: 1]

王静, 薛成波, 刘强 . ( 2018).

客体同维度特征的视觉工作记忆存储机制

心理学报, 50( 2), 176-185.

URL     [本文引用: 1]

客体理论认为视觉工作记忆的存储单位是客体,人类能够把组成物体的所有特征整合成一个单元进行记忆,不管这些特征是来自不同维度还是同一维度。然而同一维度多个特征可以被整合成客体记忆的结果只被少数研究证实,大量研究发现同一维度的多个特征不能被整合记忆,这形成了弱客体理论的基本观点。为了解决两大理论之间的争议,本研究主要探究同维度特征能否被整合记忆。通过分析以往研究,我们认为实验范式和物体意义两个因素可能是导致之前大部分研究没有发现维度内特征能够被整合记忆的原因。因此,实验1采用回忆报告范式替代以往研究经常使用的变化觉察范式,结果发现,同一维度的多个特征难以被整合记忆。实验2以记忆无意义物体的特征为基线,探究在记忆有意义物体的特征时是否可能将多个特征进行整合记忆。结果发现,对于有意义物体的特征的记忆成绩并没有显著好于记忆无意义物体特征的成绩,说明即使采用具有较强整合线索的有意义物体作为载体,同一维度多个特征也难以被整合记忆。两个实验结果进一步支持了弱客体理论。

严建雯, 孙善麟 . ( 2005).

汉字识别的加工模型

宁波大学学报(理工版), 18( 3), 329-332.

DOI:10.3969/j.issn.1001-5132.2005.03.011      URL     [本文引用: 1]

通过文献分析,概述了认知心理学关于汉字识别过程及其加工机制研究的几种主要的加工模型,即经成分识别模型、多层次交互激活模型、连接主义模型、合体汉字字形识别模型和汉字识别的多层次格式塔双向加工模型.

周群, 尧德中, 尹愚, 饶恒毅, 卓彦, 陈霖 . ( 2005).

图形形状与空间位置知觉诱发脑电的相干性分析

生物物理学报, 21( 5), 391-395.

[本文引用: 1]

周爱保, 张学民, 舒华, 何立国 . ( 2005).

字体、字号和词性对汉字认知加工的影响

应用心理学, 11( 2), 128-132.

[本文引用: 1]

曾捷英, 周新林, 喻柏林 . ( 2001).

变形汉字的结构方式和笔画数效应

心理学报, 33( 3), 204-208.

URL     [本文引用: 1]

曾捷英等提出并采用了汉字通透性概念解释汉字识别中的字形属性效应,例如笔画数效应、笔画类型效应和结构方式效应.在有关研究中采用的主要实验方法是在速示、重复速示、非速示、时间或空间微观发生等条件下要求被试命名汉字.该研究将采用新的实验方法,即在呈现变形汉字1200ms后要求被试报告识别内容.结构方式和笔画数两种字形属性为研究对象.实验结果表明存在着常规的结构方式效应和笔画数效应,尤为重要的是观察到了逆转的结构方式效应.客观计算出的汉字通透性可以合理地解释这些效应.该研究和先前研究部分证明了关于汉字字形知觉的一个重要假设:汉字通透性是形成各种字形属性效应的基本或主导原因.字形属性对汉字识别的影响可以归结为通透性的影响,这称之为通透性中介假设.

臧克和 . ( 2006).

结构的整体性——汉字与视知觉

语言文字应用, ( 3), 42-48.

DOI:10.3969/j.issn.1003-5397.2006.03.006      URL     [本文引用: 1]

汉字的认知特征,是结构整体性感知。就功能层次而言,汉字形体标记区别音义,是基于结构整体 的规定。结构成分之间相互依存,相互规定,离开了结构整体联系,部件成分的功能是无法实现的。汉字认知的关键是符合认知实际的分类问题,其基本做法是:首 先筛选出符合历史汉字发展实际的最基本的形体结构单位,然后逐级进行组合构件的结构单位认知。在这个过程中,始终强调结构成分之间的关系。就这个意义而 言,汉字结构分析,正是为了更好地遵循结构整体性认知规律。

Barnhart, A. S., & Goldinger S. D, . ( 2010).

Interpreting chicken-scratch: Lexical access for handwritten words

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 36( 4), 906-923.

DOI:10.1037/a0019258      URL     PMID:4241396      [本文引用: 3]

Abstract Handwritten word recognition is a field of study that has largely been neglected in the psychological literature, despite its prevalence in society. Whereas studies of spoken word recognition almost exclusively employ natural, human voices as stimuli, studies of visual word recognition use synthetic typefaces, thus simplifying the process of word recognition. The current study examined the effects of handwriting on a series of lexical variables thought to influence bottom-up and top-down processing, including word frequency, regularity, bidirectional consistency, and imageability. The results suggest that the natural physical ambiguity of handwritten stimuli forces a greater reliance on top-down processes, because almost all effects were magnified, relative to conditions with computer print. These findings suggest that processes of word perception naturally adapt to handwriting, compensating for physical ambiguity by increasing top-down feedback.

Barnhart, A. S., & Goldinger S. D, . ( 2013).

Rotation reveals the importance of configural cues in handwritten word perception

Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 20( 6), 1319-1326.

DOI:10.3758/s13423-013-0435-y      URL     PMID:23589201      [本文引用: 1]

A dramatic perceptual asymmetry occurs when handwritten words are rotated 9002° in either direction. Those rotated in a direction consistent with their natural tilt (typically clockwise) become much more difficult to recognize, relative to those rotated in the opposite direction. In Experiment 1 , we compared computer-printed and handwritten words, all equated for degrees of leftward and rightward tilt, and verified the phenomenon: The effect of rotation was far larger for cursive words, especially when they were rotated in a tilt-consistent direction. In Experiment 2 , we replicated this pattern with all items being presented in visual noise. In both experiments, word frequency effects were larger for computer-printed words and did not interact with rotation. The results suggest that handwritten word perception requires greater configural processing, relative to computer print, because handwritten letters are variable and ambiguous. When words are rotated, configural processing suffers, particularly when rotation exaggerates the natural tilt. Our account is similar to theories of the “Thatcher illusion,” wherein face inversion disrupts holistic processing. Together, the findings suggest that configural, word-level processing automatically increases when people read handwriting, as letter-level processing becomes less reliable.

Barnhart, A. S., & Goldinger S. D, . ( 2015).

Orthographic and phonological neighborhood effects in handwritten word perception

Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22( 6), 1739-1745.

DOI:10.3758/s13423-015-0846-z      URL     PMID:26306881      [本文引用: 2]

In printed-word perception, the orthographic neighborhood effect (i.e., faster recognition of words with more neighbors) has considerable theoretical importance, because it implicates great interactivity in lexical access. Mulatti, Reynolds, and Besner Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 32, 799-810 (2006) questioned the validity of orthographic neighborhood effects, suggesting that they reflect a confound with phonological neighborhood density. They reported that, when phonological density is controlled, orthographic neighborhood effects vanish. Conversely, phonological neighborhood effects were still evident even when controlling for orthographic neighborhood density. The present study was a replication and extension of Mulatti et al. (2006), with words presented in four different formats (computer-generated print and cursive, and handwritten print and cursive). The results from Mulatti et al. (2006) were replicated with computer-generated stimuli, but were reversed with natural stimuli. These results suggest that, when ambiguity is introduced at the level of individual letters, top-down influences from lexical neighbors are increased.

Balota D. A., Aschenbrenner A. J., & Yap M. J . ( 2013).

Additive effects of word frequency and stimulus quality: the influence of trial history and data transformations

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory & Cognition, 39( 5), 1563-1571.

DOI:10.1037/a0032186      URL     PMID:3800158      [本文引用: 1]

A counterintuitive and theoretically important pattern of results in the visual word recognition literature is that both word frequency and stimulus quality produce large but additive effects in lexical decision performance. The additive nature of these effects has recently been called into question by Masson and Kliegl (in press), who used linear mixed effects modeling to provide evidence that the additive effects were actually being driven by previous trial history. Because Masson and Kliegl also included semantic priming as a factor in their study and recent evidence has shown that semantic priming can moderate the additivity of word frequency and stimulus quality (Scaltritti, Balota, & Peressotti, 2012), we reanalyzed data from 3 published studies to determine if previous trial history moderated the additive pattern when semantic priming was not also manipulated. The results indicated that previous trial history did not influence the joint influence of word frequency and stimulus quality. More important, and independent of Masson and Kliegl's conclusions, we also show how a common transformation used in linear mixed effects analyses to normalize the residuals can systematically alter the way in which two variables combine to influence performance. Specifically, using transformed, rather than raw reaction times, consistently produces more underadditive patterns.

Bolger D. J., Perfetti C. A., & Schneider W . ( 2005).

Cross-cultural effect on the brain revisited: universal structures plus writing system variation

Human Brain Mapping, 25( 1), 92-104.

DOI:10.1002/(ISSN)1097-0193      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Bub D. N., Arguin M., & Lecours A. R . ( 1993).

Jules Dejerine and his interpretation of pure alexia

Brain and Language, 45( 4), 531-559.

DOI:10.1006/brln.1993.1059      URL     PMID:8118672      [本文引用: 1]

Dejerine's interpretation of pure alexia is routinely mentioned in all neuropsychological textbooks, yet the details of his account and the evidence on which it is based have never been subjected to a critical analysis. We provide such an evaluation in this paper, summarizing the behavioral data that Dejerine presented in his now famous case report and the theoretical framework he adopted to explain the phenomenon of alexia without agraphia. We also provide a link between Dejerine's work and current hypotheses on the nature of the syndrome.

Cabeza, R., & Nyberg L. , ( 2000).

Imaging cognition II: An empirical review of 275 PET and fMRI studies

Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12( 1), 1-47.

[本文引用: 1]

Cao F., Vu M., Chan D. H., Lawrence J. M., Harris L. N., Guan Q., … Perfetti C. A . ( 2013).

Writing affects the brain network of reading in Chinese: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study

Human Brain Mapping, 34( 7), 1670-1684.

DOI:10.1002/hbm.22017      URL     PMID:22378588      [本文引用: 2]

Abstract We examined the hypothesis that learning to write Chinese characters influences the brain's reading network for characters. Students from a college Chinese class learned 30 characters in a character-writing condition and 30 characters in a pinyin-writing condition. After learning, functional magnetic resonance imaging collected during passive viewing showed different networks for reading Chinese characters and English words, suggesting accommodation to the demands of the new writing system through short-term learning. Beyond these expected differences, we found specific effects of character writing in greater activation (relative to pinyin writing) in bilateral superior parietal lobules and bilateral lingual gyri in both a lexical decision and an implicit writing task. These findings suggest that character writing establishes a higher quality representation of the visual patial structure of the character and its orthography. We found a greater involvement of bilateral sensori-motor cortex (SMC) for character-writing trained characters than pinyin-writing trained characters in the lexical decision task, suggesting that learning by doing invokes greater interaction with sensori-motor information during character recognition. Furthermore, we found a correlation of recognition accuracy with activation in right superior parietal lobule, right lingual gyrus, and left SMC, suggesting that these areas support the facilitative effect character writing has on reading. Finally, consistent with previous behavioral studies, we found character-writing training facilitates connections with semantics by producing greater activation in bilateral middle temporal gyri, whereas pinyin-writing training facilitates connections with phonology by producing greater activation in right inferior frontal gyrus. Hum Brain Mapp, 2013. 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Chen, J. Y., & Cherng R. C, . ( 2013).

The proximate unit in Chinese handwritten character production

Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 517.

DOI:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00517      URL     PMID:3738862      [本文引用: 1]

In spoken word production, a proximate unit is the first phonological unit at the sublexical level that is selectable for production (O'Seaghdha et al., 2010). The present study investigated whether the proximate unit in Chinese handwritten character production is the stroke, the radical, or something in between. A written version of the form preparation task was adopted. Chinese participants learned sets of two-character words, later were cued with the first character of each word, and had to write down the second character (the target). Response times were measured from the onset of a cue character to the onset of a written response. In Experiment 1, the target characters within a block shared (homogeneous) or did not share (heterogeneous) the first stroke. In Experiment 2, the first two strokes were shared in the homogeneous blocks. Response times in the homogeneous blocks and in the heterogeneous blocks were comparable in both experiments (Experiment 1: 687 vs. 684 ms, Experiment 2: 717 vs. 716). In Experiment 3 and 4, the target characters within a block shared or did not share the first radical. Response times in the homogeneous blocks were significantly faster than those in the heterogeneous blocks (Experiment 3: 685 vs. 704, Experiment 4: 594 vs. 650). In Experiment 5 and 6, the shared component was a Gestalt-like form that is more than a stroke, constitutes a portion of the target character, can be a stand-alone character itself, can be a radical of another character but is not a radical of the target character (e.g., 卤 in , , , ; called a logographeme). Response times in the homogeneous blocks were significantly faster than those in the heterogeneous blocks (Experiment 5: 576 vs. 625, Experiment 6: 586 vs. 620). These results suggest a model of Chinese handwritten character production in which the stroke is not a functional unit, the radical plays the role of a morpheme, and the logographeme is the proximate unit.

Corcoran, D. W. J., & Rouse R. O, . ( 1970).

An aspect of perceptual organization involved in reading typed and handwritten words

Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 22( 3), 526-530.

DOI:10.1080/14640747008401930      URL     [本文引用: 1]

ABSTRACT Three experiments of identical design, but using different basic materials are reported. In experiment I the probability of recognizing tachistoscopically presented typed and handwritten words was found (a) when the two types of materials were presented in separate lists, and (b) when presented together in a mixed list when subjects did not know what type of material to expect next in the sequence. In Experiment II, two handwritings were employed and in Experiment III, upper and lower case typed material was used.The mixed condition resulted in poorer performance than the unmixed condition only in Experiment I when typing and handwriting were used. In Experiments II and III, mixing had no effect.It is suggested that different recognition programs are used for typed and hand-written characters.

Coltheart M., Curtis B., Atkins P., & Haller M . ( 1993).

Models of reading aloud: Dual-route and parallel- distributed-processing approaches

Psychological Review, 100( 4), 589-608.

DOI:10.1037/0033-295X.100.4.589      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Because models with dual-route architecture can explain six identified basic facts about reading, the authors suggest that this remains the workable architecture for any tenable model of reading and learning to read. The dual-route cascaded model, a computational version of the dual-route model, is described. (SLD)

De Zuniga C. M., Humphreys G. W., & Evett L. J . ( 1991).

Additive and interactive effects of repetition, degradation, and word frequency in the reading of handwriting

In Besner, D. & Humphreys, G .( Eds.), Basic processes in reading (pp. 10-33). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

URL     [本文引用: 3]

Dehaene S., Cohen L., Sigman M., & Vinckier F . ( 2005).

The neural code for written words: A proposal

Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9( 7), 335-341.

DOI:10.1016/j.tics.2005.05.004      URL     PMID:15951224      [本文引用: 1]

How is reading, a cultural invention, coded by neural populations in the human brain? The neural code for written words must be abstract, because we can recognize words regardless of their location, font and size. Yet it must also be exquisitely sensitive to letter identity and letter order. Most existing coding schemes are insufficiently invariant or incompatible with the constraints of the visual system. We propose a tentative neuronal model according to which part of the occipito-temporal ‘what’ pathway is tuned to writing and forms a hierarchy of local combination detectors sensitive to increasingly larger fragments of words. Our proposal can explain why the detection of ‘open bigrams’ (ordered pairs of letters) constitutes an important stage in visual word recognition.

Diaz-Cabrera M., Ferrer M. A., & Morales A . ( 2015).

Modeling the lexical morphology of western handwritten signatures

PLoS One, 10( 4), e0123254.

DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0123254      URL     PMID:25860942      [本文引用: 1]

by Moises Diaz-Cabrera, Miguel A. Ferrer, Aythami MoralesA handwritten signature is the final response to a complex cognitive and neuromuscular process which is the result of the learning proce ...

Dinges L., Al-Hamadi A., Elzobi M., El-etriby S., & Ghoneim A . ( 2015).

ASM based synthesis of handwritten Arabic text pages

The Scientific World Journal, 2015, 323575.

DOI:10.1155/2015/323575      URL     PMID:4534626      [本文引用: 2]

Abstract Document analysis tasks, as text recognition, word spotting, or segmentation, are highly dependent on comprehensive and suitable databases for training and validation. However their generation is expensive in sense of labor and time. As a matter of fact, there is a lack of such databases, which complicates research and development. This is especially true for the case of Arabic handwriting recognition, that involves different preprocessing, segmentation, and recognition methods, which have individual demands on samples and ground truth. To bypass this problem, we present an efficient system that automatically turns Arabic Unicode text into synthetic images of handwritten documents and detailed ground truth. Active Shape Models (ASMs) based on 28046 online samples were used for character synthesis and statistical properties were extracted from the IESK-arDB database to simulate baselines and word slant or skew. In the synthesis step ASM based representations are composed to words and text pages, smoothed by B-Spline interpolation and rendered considering writing speed and pen characteristics. Finally, we use the synthetic data to validate a segmentation method. An experimental comparison with the IESK-arDB database encourages to train and test document analysis related methods on synthetic samples, whenever no sufficient natural ground truthed data is available.

Dinges L., Al-Hamadi A., Elzobi M., & El-etriby S . ( 2016).

Synthesis of common Arabic handwritings to aid optical character recognition research

Sensors, 16( 3), 346.

DOI:10.3390/s16030346      URL     PMID:4813921      [本文引用: 2]

Document analysis tasks such as pattern recognition, word spotting or segmentation, require comprehensive databases for training and validation. Not only variations in writing style but also the used list of words is of importance in the case that training samples should reflect the input of a specific area of application. However, generation of training samples is expensive in the sense of manpower and time, particularly if complete text pages including complex ground truth are required. This is why there is a lack of such databases, especially for Arabic, the second most popular language. However, Arabic handwriting recognition involves different preprocessing, segmentation and recognition methods. Each requires particular ground truth or samples to enable optimal training and validation, which are often not covered by the currently available databases. To overcome this issue, we propose a system that synthesizes Arabic handwritten words and text pages and generates corresponding detailed ground truth. We use these syntheses to validate a new, segmentation based system that recognizes handwritten Arabic words. We found that a modification of an Active Shape Model based character classifiers hat we proposed earlier mproves the word recognition accuracy. Further improvements are achieved, by using a vocabulary of the 50,000 most common Arabic words for error correction.

Gordon C. J., Spivev M. J., & Balasubramaniam R . ( 2017).

Corticospinal excitability during the processing of handwritten and typed words and non-words

Neuroscience Letters, 651, 232-236.

DOI:10.1016/j.neulet.2017.05.021      URL     PMID:28504121      [本文引用: 1]

Abstract A number of studies have suggested that perception of actions is accompanied by motor simulation of those actions. To further explore this proposal, we applied Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to the left primary motor cortex during the observation of handwritten and typed language stimuli, including words and non-word consonant clusters. We recorded motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) from the right first dorsal interosseous (FDI) muscle to measure cortico-spinal excitability during written text perception. We observed a facilitation in MEPs for handwritten stimuli, regardless of whether the stimuli were words or non-words, suggesting potential motor simulation during observation. We did not observe a similar facilitation for the typed stimuli, suggesting that motor simulation was not occurring during observation of typed text. By demonstrating potential simulation of written language text during observation, these findings add to a growing literature suggesting that the motor system plays a strong role in the perception of written language.

Engbert R., Longtin A., & Kliegl R . ( 2002).

A dynamical model of saccade generation in reading based on spatially distributed lexical processing

Vision Research, 42( 5), 621-636.

DOI:10.1016/S0042-6989(01)00301-7      URL     PMID:11853779      [本文引用: 1]

Abstract The understanding of the control of eye movements has greatly benefited from the analysis of mathematical models. Currently most comprehensive models include sequential shifts of visual attention. Here we propose an alternative model of eye movement control, which includes three new principles: spatially distributed lexical processing, a separation of saccade timing from saccade target selection, and autonomous (random) generation of saccades with foveal inhibition. These three features provide a common control mechanism for fixations, refixations, and regressions. Consequently, the model is called SWIFT (Saccade-generation with inhibition by foveal targets). Results from numerical simulations are in good agreement with effects of word frequency on single-fixation, first-fixation, and gaze durations as well as fixation and word skipping probabilities in first-pass analysis. The model inherently produces complex eye movement patterns including refixations and regressions due to its underlying dynamical principles.

Guan C. Q., Liu Y., Chan D. H. L., Ye F., & Perfetti C. A . ( 2011).

Writing strengthens orthography and alphabetic- coding strengthens phonology in learning to read Chinese

Journal of Educational Psychology, 103( 3), 509-522.

DOI:10.1037/a0023730      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Learning to write words may strengthen orthographic representations and thus support word-specific recognition processes. This hypothesis applies especially to Chinese because its writing system encourages character-specific recognition that depends on accurate representation of orthographic form. We report 2 studies that test this hypothesis in adult learners of Chinese. In those studies, the researchers 1st compared the effects of an online writing tutor that included character handwriting with an instructional tutor that included reading only. The writing condition led to better performance on word recognition and on character-meaning links but not on the character-phonology link. In the 2nd experiment, we added an alphabetic (Pinyin) typing tutor to strengthen the phonology link and to control for manual motor activity during instruction. This experiment replicated the effects of writing on word recognition and character-meaning links, whereas alphabetic (Pinyin) typing supported only phonological representations and the character-phonology link. Theoretically, the studies suggest constituent-specific effects: writing on orthography and alphabetic coding on phonology. We suggest the mechanism for the writing effect is the refinement of visual-spatial information needed for character recognition and the addition of a sensory-motor memory that accompanies writing. The practical implication is that an integration of character handwriting and Pinyin typing promotes learning to read Chinese in a second language learning context.

Hellige, J. B., & Adamson M. M, . ( 2007).

Hemispheric differences in processing handwritten cursive

Brain and Language, 102( 3), 215-227.

DOI:10.1016/j.bandl.2006.11.003      URL     PMID:17157906      [本文引用: 1]

Hemispheric asymmetry was examined for native English speakers identifying consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC) non-words presented in standard printed form, in standard handwritten cursive form or in handwritten cursive with the letters separated by small gaps. For all three conditions, fewer errors occurred when stimuli were presented to the right visual field/left hemisphere (RVF/LH) than to the left visual field/right hemisphere (LVF/RH) and qualitative error patterns indicated that the last letter was missed more often than the first letter on LVF/RH trials but not on RVF/LH trials. Despite this overall similarity, the RVF/LH advantage was smaller for both types of cursive stimuli than for printed stimuli. In addition, the difference between first-letter and last-letter errors was smaller for handwritten cursive than for printed text, especially on LVF/RH trials. These results suggest a greater contribution of the right hemisphere to the identification of handwritten cursive, which is likely related visual complexity and to qualitative differences in the processing of cursive versus print.

Li, J. X., & James K. H, . ( 2016).

Handwriting generates variable visual output to facilitate symbol learning

Journal of Experimental Psychology General, 145( 3), 298-313.

DOI:10.1037/xge0000134      URL     PMID:4755885      [本文引用: 1]

Recent research has demonstrated that handwriting practice facilitates letter categorization in young children. The present experiments investigated why handwriting practice facilitates visual categorization by comparing 2 hypotheses: that handwriting exerts its facilitative effect because of the visual-motor production of forms, resulting in a direct link between motor and perceptual systems, or because handwriting produces variable visual instances of a named category in the environment that then changes neural systems. We addressed these issues by measuring performance of 5-year-old children on a categorization task involving novel, Greek symbols across 6 different types of learning conditions: 3 involving visual-motor practice (copying typed symbols independently, tracing typed symbols, tracing handwritten symbols) and 3 involving visual-auditory practice (seeing and saying typed symbols of a single typed font, of variable typed fonts, and of handwritten examples). We could therefore compare visual-motor production with visual perception both of variable and similar forms. Comparisons across the 6 conditions (N = 72) demonstrated that all conditions that involved studying highly variable instances of a symbol facilitated symbol categorization relative to conditions where similar instances of a symbol were learned, regardless of visual-motor production. Therefore, learning perceptually variable instances of a category enhanced performance, suggesting that handwriting facilitates symbol understanding by virtue of its environmental output: supporting the notion of developmental change though brain-body-environment interactions. (PsycINFO Database Record

Longcamp M., Anton J. L., Roth M., & Velay J. L . ( 2003).

Visual presentation of single letters activates a premotor area involved in writing

NeuroImage, 19( 4), 1492-1500.

DOI:10.1016/S1053-8119(03)00088-0      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Magrassi L., Bongetta D., Bianchini S., Berardesca M., & Arienta C . ( 2010).

Central and peripheral components of writing critically depend on a defined area of the dominant superior parietal gyrus

Brain Research, 1346, 145-154.

DOI:10.1016/j.brainres.2010.05.046      URL     PMID:20580692      [本文引用: 2]

Classical neuropsychological models of writing separate central (linguistic) processes common to oral spelling, writing and typing from peripheral (motor) processes that are modality specific. Damage to the left superior parietal gyrus, an area of the cortex involved in peripheral processes specific to handwriting, should generate distorted graphemes but not misspelled words, while damage to other areas of the cortex like the frontal lobe should produce alterations in written and oral spelling without distorted graphemes. We describe the clinical and neuropsychological features of a patient with combined agraphia for handwriting and typewriting bearing a small glioblastoma in the left parietal lobe. His agraphia resolved after antiedema therapy and we tested by bipolar cortical stimulation his handwriting abilities during an awake neurosurgical procedure. We found that we could reversibly re-induce the same defects of writing by stimulating during surgery a limited area of the superior parietal gyrus in the same patient and in an independent patient that was never agraphic before the operation. In those patients stimulation caused spelling errors, poorly formed letters and in some cases a complete cessation of writing with minimal or no effects on oral spelling. Our results suggest that stimulating a specific area in the superior parietal gyrus we can generate different patterns of agraphia. Moreover, our findings also suggest that some of the central processes specific for typing and handwriting converge with motor processes at least in the limited portion of the superior parietal gyrus we mapped in our patients.

Mukhopadhyay M., Singh P. K., Sarkar R., & Nasipuri M . ( 2018).

A study of different classifier combination approaches for handwritten Indic Script Recognition

Journal of Imaging, 4( 2), 39.

DOI:10.3390/jimaging4020039      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Script identification is an essential step in document image processing especially when the environment is multi-script/multilingual. Till date researchers have developed several methods for the said problem. For this kind of complex pattern recognition problem, it is always difficult to decide which classifier would be the best choice. Moreover, it is also true that different classifiers offer complementary information about the patterns to be classified. Therefore, combining classifiers, in an intelligent way, can be beneficial compared to using any single classifier. Keeping these facts in mind, in this paper, information provided by one shape based and two texture based features are combined using classifier combination techniques for script recognition (word-level) purpose from the handwritten document images. CMATERdb8.4.1 contains 7200 handwritten word samples belonging to 12 Indic scripts (600 per script) and the database is made freely available at https://code.google.com/p/cmaterdb/. The word samples from the mentioned database are classified based on the confidence scores provided by Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP) classifier. Major classifier combination techniques including majority voting, Borda count, sum rule, product rule, max rule, Dempster-Shafer (DS) rule of combination and secondary classifiers are evaluated for this pattern recognition problem. Maximum accuracy of 98.45% is achieved with an improvement of 7% over the best performing individual classifier being reported on the validation set.

Nakamura K., Kuo W. J., Pegado F., Cohen L., Tzeng O. J. L., & Dehaene S . ( 2012).

Universal brain systems for recognizing word shapes and handwriting gestures during reading

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109( 50), 20762-20767.

DOI:10.1073/pnas.1217749109      URL     PMID:23184998      [本文引用: 2]

Do the neural circuits for reading vary across culture? Reading of visually complex writing systems such as Chinese has been proposed to rely on areas outside the classical left-hemisphere network for alphabetic reading. Here, however, we show that, once potential confounds in cross-cultural comparisons are controlled for by presenting handwritten stimuli to both Chinese and French readers, the underlying network for visual word recognition may be more universal than previously suspected. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging in a semantic task with words written in cursive font, we demonstrate that two universal circuits, a shape recognition system (reading by eye) and a gesture recognition system (reading by hand), are similarly activated and show identical patterns of activation and repetition priming in the two language groups. These activations cover most of the brain regions previously associated with culture-specific tuning. Our results point to an extended reading network that invariably comprises the occipitotemporal visual wordform system, which is sensitive to well-formed static letter strings, and a distinct left premotor region, ExneKs area, which is sensitive to the forward or backward direction with which cursive letters are dynamically presented. These findings suggest that cultural effects in reading merely modulate a fixed set of invariant macroscopic brain circuits, depending on surface features of orthographies.

Perea M., Gil-López C., Beléndez V., & Carreiras M . ( 2016).

Do handwritten words magnify lexical effects in visual word recognition?

The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 69( 8), 1631-1647.

DOI:10.1080/17470218.2015.1091016      URL     PMID:26340587      [本文引用: 4]

An examination of how the word recognition system is able to process handwritten words is fundamental to formulate a comprehensive model of visual word recognition. Previous research has revealed that the magnitude of lexical effects (e.g., the word-frequency effect) is greater with handwritten words than with printed words. In the present lexical decision experiments, we examined whether the quality of handwritten words moderates the recruitment of top-down feedback, as reflected in word-frequency effects. Results showed a reading cost for difficult-to-read and easy-to-read handwritten words relative to printed words. But the critical finding was that difficult-to-read handwritten words, but not easy-to-read handwritten words, showed a greater word-frequency effect than printed words. Therefore, the inherent physical variability of handwritten words does not necessarily boost the magnitude of lexical effects.

Perea M., Marcet A., Uixera B., & Vergara-Martínez, M .( 2016).

Eye movements when reading sentences with handwritten words

The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, doi: 10.1080/17470218. 2016. 1237531.

DOI:10.1080/17470218.2016.1237531      URL     PMID:27635673      [本文引用: 3]

Abstract The examination of how we read handwritten words (i.e., the original form of writing) has typically been disregarded in the literature on reading. Previous research using word recognition tasks has shown that lexical effects (e.g., the word-frequency effect) are magnified when reading difficult handwritten words. To examine this issue in a more ecological scenario, we registered the participants eye movements when reading handwritten sentences that varied in the degree of legibility (i.e., sentences composed of words in easy vs. difficult handwritten style). For comparison purposes, we included a condition with printed sentences. Results showed a larger reading cost for sentences with difficult handwritten words than for sentences with easy handwritten words, which in turn showed a reading cost relative to the sentences with printed words. Critically, the effect of word-frequency was greater for difficult handwritten words than for easy handwritten words or printed words in the total times on a target word, but not on first-fixation durations or gaze durations. We examine the implications of these findings for models of eye movement control in reading. PQJE_1237531_supplemental_material.docx

Perfetti, C. A., & Tan L. , ( 2013).

Write to read: the brain’s universal reading and writing network

Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17( 2), 56-57.

DOI:10.1016/j.tics.2012.12.008      URL     PMID:23357712      [本文引用: 1]

Do differences in writing systems translate into differences in the brain's reading network? Or is this network universal, relatively impervious to variation in writing systems? A new study adds intriguing evidence to these questions by showing that reading handwritten words activates a pre-motor area across writing systems.

Planton S., Jucla M., Roux F. E., & Demonet J. F . ( 2013).

The "handwriting brain": A meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies of motor versus orthographic processes

Cortex, 49( 10), 2772-2787.

DOI:10.1016/j.cortex.2013.05.011      URL     PMID:23831432      [本文引用: 2]

Abstract INTRODUCTION: Handwriting is a modality of language production whose cerebral substrates remain poorly known although the existence of specific regions is postulated. The description of brain damaged patients with agraphia and, more recently, several neuroimaging studies suggest the involvement of different brain regions. However, results vary with the methodological choices made and may not always discriminate between "writing-specific" and motor or linguistic processes shared with other abilities. METHODS: We used the "Activation Likelihood Estimate" (ALE) meta-analytical method to identify the cerebral network of areas commonly activated during handwriting in 18 neuroimaging studies published in the literature. Included contrasts were also classified according to the control tasks used, whether non-specific motor/output-control or linguistic/input-control. These data were included in two secondary meta-analyses in order to reveal the functional role of the different areas of this network. RESULTS: An extensive, mainly left-hemisphere network of 12 cortical and sub-cortical areas was obtained; three of which were considered as primarily writing-specific (left superior frontal sulcus/middle frontal gyrus area, left intraparietal sulcus/superior parietal area, right cerebellum) while others related rather to non-specific motor (primary motor and sensorimotor cortex, supplementary motor area, thalamus and putamen) or linguistic processes (ventral premotor cortex, posterior/inferior temporal cortex). CONCLUSIONS: This meta-analysis provides a description of the cerebral network of handwriting as revealed by various types of neuroimaging experiments and confirms the crucial involvement of the left frontal and superior parietal regions. These findings provide new insights into cognitive processes involved in handwriting and their cerebral substrates. Copyright 漏 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Qiao E., Vinckier F., Szwed M., Naccache L., Valabrègue R., Dehaene S., & Cohen L . ( 2010).

Unconsciously deciphering handwriting: Subliminal invariance for handwritten words in the visual word form area

NeuroImage, 49( 2), 1786-1799.

DOI:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.09.034      URL     PMID:19781648      [本文引用: 3]

Abstract Expert readers exhibit a remarkable ability to recognize handwriting, in spite of enormous variability in character shape-a competence whose cerebral underpinnings are unknown. Subliminal priming, combined with neuroimaging, can reveal which brain areas automatically compute an invariant representation of visual stimuli. Here, we used behavioral and fMRI priming to study the areas involved in invariant handwritten word recognition. Compared to printed words, easily readable handwritten words caused additional activity in ventral occipitotemporal cortex, particularly in the right hemisphere, while difficult handwriting also mobilized an attentional parietofrontal network. Remarkably, however, subliminal repetition effects were observed across printed and handwritten styles, whether easy or difficult to read, both behaviorally and in the activation of the left visual word form area (VWFA). These results indicate that the left inferotemporal VWFA possesses an unsuspected degree of fast and automatic visual invariance for handwritten words, although surprisingly this invariance can be reflected both as repetition suppression and as repetition enhancement.

Reichle E. D., Pollatsek A., Fisher D. L., & Rayner K . ( 1998).

Toward a model of eye movement control in reading

Psychological Review, 105( 1), 125-157.

DOI:10.1037/0033-295X.105.1.125      URL     PMID:9450374      [本文引用: 1]

Abstract The authors present several versions of a general model, titled the E-Z Reader model, of eye movement control in reading. The major goal of the modeling is to relate cognitive processing (specifically aspects of lexical access) to eye movements in reading. The earliest and simplest versions of the model (E-Z Readers 1 and 2) merely attempt to explain the total time spent on a word before moving forward (the gaze duration) and the probability of fixating a word; later versions (E-Z Readers 3-5) also attempt to explain the durations of individual fixations on individual words and the number of fixations on individual words. The final version (E-Z Reader 5) appears to be psychologically plausible and gives a good account of many phenomena in reading. It is also a good tool for analyzing eye movement data in reading. Limitations of the model and directions for future research are also discussed.

Reichle E. D., Pollatsek A., Rayner K . ( 2006).

E-Z Reader: A cognitive-control, serial-attention model of eye- movement behavior during reading

Cognitive Systems Research, 7( 1), 4-22.

DOI:10.1016/j.cogsys.2005.07.002      URL     [本文引用: 1]

The two core assumptions of the E Reader model of eye-movement control during reading are that: (1) a preliminary stage of lexical access (i.e., the familiarity check) triggers the initiation of a saccadic program to move the eyes from one word to the next; and (2) attention is allocated serially, to one word at a time. This paper provides an overview of the model, some of the research that motivated its assumptions, and the various reading-related phenomena that the model can account for. This paper also summarizes how the model has been and is currently being used to guide empirical research.

Reichle E. D., Warren T., & McConnell K . ( 2009).

Using E-Z reader to model the effects of higher level language processing on eye movements during reading

Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 16( 1), 1-21.

DOI:10.3758/PBR.16.1.1      URL     PMID:2629133      [本文引用: 1]

Although computational models of eye-movement control during reading have been used to explain how saccadic programming, visual constraints, attention allocation, and lexical processing jointly affect eye movements during reading, these models have largely ignored the issue of how higher level, postlexical language processing affects eye movements. The present article shows how one of these models, E-Z Reader (Pollatsek, Reichle, & Rayner, 2006c), can be augmented to redress this limitation. Simulations show that with a few simple assumptions, the model can account for the fact that effects of higher level language processing are not observed on eye movements when such processing is occurring without difficulty, but can capture the patterns of eye movements that are observed when such processing is slowed or disrupted.

Rayner K., Reichle E. D., Stroud M. J., Williams C. C., & Pollatsek A . ( 2006).

The effect of word frequency, word predictability, and font difficulty on the eye movements of young and older readers

Psychology and Aging, 21( 3), 448-465.

DOI:10.1037/0882-7974.21.3.448      URL     PMID:16953709      [本文引用: 1]

Young adult and older readers' eye movements were recorded as they read sentences containing target words that varied in frequency or predictability. In addition, half of the sentences were printed in a font that was easy to read (Times New Roman) and the other half were printed in a font that was more difficult to read (Old English). Word frequency, word predictability, and font difficulty effects were apparent in the eye movement data of both groups of readers. In the fixation time data, the pattern of results was the same, but the older readers had larger frequency and predictability effects than the younger readers. The older readers skipped words more often than the younger readers (as indicated by their skipping rate on selected target words), but they made more regressions back to the target words and more regressions overall. The E-Z Reader model was used as a platform to evaluate the results, and simulations using the model suggest that lexical processing is slowed in older readers and that, possibly as a result of this, they adopt a more risky reading strategy.

Rosso O. A., Ospina R., & Frery A. C . ( 2016).

Classification and verification of handwritten signatures with time causal information theory quantifiers

PLoS One, 11( 12), e0166868.

DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0166868      URL     PMID:5131934      [本文引用: 1]

We present a new approach for handwritten signature classification and verification based on descriptors stemming from time causal information theory. The proposal uses the Shannon entropy, the statistical complexity, and the Fisher information evaluated over the Bandt and Pompe symbolization of the horizontal and vertical coordinates of signatures. These six features are easy and fast to compute, and they are the input to an One-Class Support Vector Machine classifier. The results are better than state-of-the-art online techniques that employ higher-dimensional feature spaces which often require specialized software and hardware. We assess the consistency of our proposal with respect to the size of the training sample, and we also use it to classify the signatures into meaningful groups.

Tan L. H., Spinks J. A., Eden G. F., Perfetti C. A., & Siok W. T . ( 2005).

Reading depends on writing, in Chinese

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102( 24), 8781-8785.

DOI:10.1073/pnas.0503523102      URL     PMID:15939871      [本文引用: 3]

Language development entails four fundamental and interactive abilities: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Over the past four decades, a large body of evidence has indicated that reading acquisition is strongly associated with a child's listening skills, particularly the child's sensitivity to phonological structures of spoken language. Furthermore, it has been hypothesized that the close relationship between reading and listening is manifested universally across languages and that behavioral remediation using strategies addressing phonological awareness alleviates reading difficulties in dyslexics. The prevailing view of the central role of phonological awareness in reading development is largely based on studies using Western (alphabetic) languages, which are based on phonology. The Chinese language provides a unique medium for testing this notion, because logographic characters in Chinese are based on meaning rather than phonology. Here we show that the ability to read Chinese is strongly related to a child's writing skills and that the relationship between phonological awareness and Chinese reading is much weaker than that in reports regarding alphabetic languages. We propose that the role of logograph writing in reading development is mediated by two possibly interacting mechanisms. The first is orthographic awareness, which facilitates the development of coherent, effective links among visual symbols, phonology, and semantics; the second involves the establishment of motor programs that lead to the formation of long-term motor memories of Chinese characters. These findings yield a unique insight into how cognitive systems responsible for reading development and reading disability interact, and they challenge the prominent phonological awareness view.

Tan L. H., Xu M., Chang C. Q., & Siok W. T . ( 2013).

China's language input system in the digital age affects children's reading development

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 110( 3), 1119-1123.

DOI:10.1073/pnas.1213586110      URL     PMID:23277555      [本文引用: 1]

Written Chinese as a logographic system was developed over 3,000 y ago. Historically, Chinese children have learned to read by learning to associate the visuo-graphic properties of Chinese characters with lexical meaning, typically through handwriting. In recent years, however, many Chinese children have learned to use electronic communication devices based on the pinyin input method, which associates phonemes and English letters with characters. When children use pinyin to key in letters, their spelling no longer depends on reproducing the visuo-graphic properties of characters that are indispensable to Chinese reading, and, thus, typing in pinyin may conflict with the traditional learning processes for written Chinese. We therefore tested character reading ability and pinyin use by primary school children in three Chinese cites: Beijing (n = 466), Guangzhou (n = 477), and Jining (n = 4,908). Children with severe reading difficulty are defined as those who were normal in nonverbal IQ but two grades (i.e., 2 y) behind in character-reading achievement. We found that the overall incidence rate of severe reading difficulty appears to be much higher than ever reported on Chinese reading. Crucially, we found that children's reading scores were significantly negatively correlated with their use of the pinyin input method, suggesting that pinyin typing on e-devices hinders Chinese reading development. The Chinese language has survived the technological challenges of the digital era, but the benefits of communicating digitally may come with a cost in proficient learning of written Chinese.

Vajda S., Ranqoni Y., & Cecotti H . ( 2015).

Semi-automatic ground truth generation using unsupervised clustering and limited manual labeling: Application to handwritten character recognition

Pattern Recognition Letters, 58, 23-28.

DOI:10.1016/j.patrec.2015.02.001      URL     PMID:25870463      [本文引用: 1]

Abstract For training supervised classifiers to recognize different patterns, large data collections with accurate labels are necessary. In this paper, we propose a generic, semi-automatic labeling technique for large handwritten character collections. In order to speed up the creation of a large scale ground truth, the method combines unsupervised clustering and minimal expert knowledge. To exploit the potential discriminant complementarities across features, each character is projected into five different feature spaces. After clustering the images in each feature space, the human expert labels the cluster centers. Each data point inherits the label of its cluster's center. A majority (or unanimity) vote decides the label of each character image. The amount of human involvement (labeling) is strictly controlled by the number of clusters - produced by the chosen clustering approach. To test the efficiency of the proposed approach, we have compared, and evaluated three state-of-the art clustering methods (k-means, self-organizing maps, and growing neural gas) on the MNIST digit data set, and a Lampung Indonesian character data set, respectively. Considering a k-nn classifier, we show that labeling manually only 1.3% (MNIST), and 3.2% (Lampung) of the training data, provides the same range of performance than a completely labeled data set would.

Wandell B. A., Rauschecker A. M., & Yeatman J. D . ( 2012).

Learning to see words

Annual Review of Psychology, 63( 1), 31-53.

DOI:10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100434      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Xu Y., Pollatsek A., & Potter M. C . ( 1999).

The activation of Phonology during silent Chinese word reading

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 25( 4), 835-858.

DOI:10.1037/0278-7393.25.4.838      URL     PMID:10439499      [本文引用: 1]

The role of phonology in silent Chinese compound-character reading was studied in 2 experiments using a semantic relatedness judgment task. There was significant interference from a homophone of a "target" word that was semantically related to an initially presented cue word whether the homophone was orthographically similar to the target or not. This interference was only observed for exact homophones (i.e., those that had the same tone, consonant, and vowel). In addition, the effect was not significantly modulated by target or distractor frequency, nor was it restricted to cases of associative priming. Substantial interference was also found from orthographically similar nonhomophones of the targets. Together these data are best accounted for by a model that allows for parallel access of semantics via 2 routes, 1 directly from orthography to semantics and the other from orthography to phonology to semantics.

Zhang, Q., & Feng, C . ( 2017).

The interaction between central and peripheral processing in Chinese handwritten production: Evidence from the effect of lexicality and radical complexity

Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 334.

DOI:10.3389/fphys.2017.00334      URL     PMID:5440594      [本文引用: 1]

Background:Tumor Necrosis Factor α (TNFα) upregulation during acute inflammatory response has been associated with numerous cardiac effects including modulating Connexin43 and vascular permeability. This may in turn alter cardiac gap junctional (GJ) coupling and extracellular volume (ephaptic coupling) respectively. We hypothesized that acute exposure to pathophysiological TNFα levels can modulate conduction velocity (CV) in the heart by altering electrical coupling: GJ and ephaptic. Methods and Results:Hearts were optically mapped to determine CV from control, TNFα and TNFα + high calcium (2.5 vs. 1.25 mM) treated guinea pig hearts over 90 mins. Transmission electron microscopy was performed to measure changes in intercellular separation in the gap junction-adjacent extracellular nanodomain—perinexus (WP). Cx43 expression and phosphorylation were determined by Western blotting and Cx43 distribution by confocal immunofluorescence. At 90 mins, longitudinal and transverse CV (CVLand CVT, respectively) increased with control Tyrode perfusion but TNFα slowed CVTalone relative to control and anisotropy of conduction increased, but not significantly. TNFα increased WPrelative to control at 90 mins, without significantly changing GJ coupling. Increasing extracellular calcium after 30 mins of just TNFα exposure increased CVTwithin 15 mins. TNFα + high calcium also restored CVTat 90 mins and reduced WPto control values. Interestingly, TNFα + high calcium also improved GJ coupling at 90 mins, which along with reduced WPmay have contributed to increasing CV. Conclusions:Elevating extracellular calcium during acute TNFα exposure reduces perinexal expansion, increases ephaptic, and GJ coupling, improves CV and may be a novel method for preventing inflammation induced CV slowing.

/


版权所有 © 《心理科学进展》编辑部
地址:北京市朝阳区林萃路16号院 
邮编:100101 
电话:010-64850861 
E-mail:jinzhan@psych.ac.cn
备案编号:京ICP备10049795号-1 京公网安备110402500018号

本系统由北京玛格泰克科技发展有限公司设计开发