ISSN 1671-3710
CN 11-4766/R
主办:中国科学院心理研究所
出版:科学出版社

心理科学进展, 2018, 26(6): 1131-1140 doi: 10.3724/SP.J.1042.2018.01131

研究前沿

多源评价的特点与内在机制

张赟1, 翁清雄,2

1 西南财经大学工商管理学院, 成都 611130

2 中国科学技术大学管理学院, 合肥 230026

The analysis of characteristics and internal mechanisms of multisource feedback

ZHANG Yun1, WENG Qingxiong,2

1 School of Business and Administration, Southwestern University of Finance and Economics, Chengdu 611130, China

2 School of Management, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China

通讯作者: 翁清雄, E-mail:wqx886@ustc.edu.cn

收稿日期: 2016-11-16   网络出版日期: 2018-06-10

Received: 2016-11-16   Online: 2018-06-10

摘要

多源评价在国外企业中的运用已日益成熟, 但在我国还停留在探索与发展阶段。基于已有的研究发现, 围绕评价过程、评价源及被评价者三方面对多源评价的特点及内在机制进行了探讨与分析。从评价过程看, 其评价目的具有多重性, 评价形式注重匿名性, 且评价结果的合理应用非常重要; 从评价源看, 不同评价源间的评价一致性较低, 且易造成晕轮效应和宽大效应; 从被评价者来看, 个体对多源评价结果的反应, 受到个性特征、反馈信号及自我-他人评价间差距等因素影响。研究也发现, 多源评价所带来的绩效改进结果具有不稳定性。基于此, 如何提高多源评价过程的有效性与准确性, 改善评价者对评价结果的反应, 以及如何对多源评价结果进行有效汇总等是未来值得研究的重要内容。

关键词: 多源评价; 评价一致性; 评价偏误

Abstract

Although the multisource feedback in foreign enterprises has become mature, it is still underdeveloped in China. Based on extant studies, we discuss and analyze the characteristics and internal mechanism of multisource feedback through three constructs, including appraisal process, rater sources, and ratee. From the perspective of appraisal process, multisource feedback has various objectives, and it often preserves the anonymity of raters as well as managers should pay attention to reasonably using appraisal results. In terms of the rater sources, the level of rating agreement between different raters is low, and raters often make halo error and leniency effect easily. From the view of ratee, the reaction of individuals to the feedback results is impacted by personality, feedback signal, and self-others agreement, etc. Additionally, the studies also show the influence of multisource feedback on performance is unstable. Based on these findings, there is a need for further study on how to enhance the validity and accuracy of appraisal process, improve individuals’ reaction, and summarize the results of multisource feedback.

Keywords: multisource feedback; rating agreement; rating biases

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本文引用格式

张赟, 翁清雄. 多源评价的特点与内在机制. 心理科学进展, 2018, 26(6): 1131-1140 doi:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2018.01131

ZHANG Yun, WENG Qingxiong. The analysis of characteristics and internal mechanisms of multisource feedback. Advances in Psychological Science, 2018, 26(6): 1131-1140 doi:10.3724/SP.J.1042.2018.01131

1 引言

在工业经济时期, 在大规模的重复生产方式条件下, 对员工的绩效评价主要为上级评价模式(top-down appraisal)。但随着经济的发展, 定制生产方式的出现, 上级无法拥有员工的完整信息, 不能对员工作出客观公正的评价(许庆瑞, 王勇, 陈劲, 2002), 因此拥有多个评价源的评价模式应运而生。多源评价/反馈(multisource feedback), 包括360度、270度或180度评价(Markham, Smith, Markham, & Braekkan, 2014), 指被评价者受到来自上级、同事、自我、下级及顾客的多角度评价(London & Smither, 1995)。据统计, 全球500强企业中, 有90%的企业都在使用多源评价(Maylett, 2009)。相对于传统的上级评价来说, 多源评价是多个评价主体同时对被评价者的绩效进行评估, 因此能够提供更准确、多角度的描述(Hoffman, Lance, Bynum, & Gentry, 2010)。

目前, 我国对多源评价的研究还较少, 且大多属于定性研究。如刘凤瑜(2000)对360度反馈的基本原理与过程进行了阐述; 陆昌勤、方俐洛和凌文辁(2001)探讨了360度反馈在人力资源管理中的效用, 以及在中国文化背景下的实施策略; 许庆瑞等(2002)对多源评价中不同的评价源特征及缺点进行了分析, 并针对不同的组织环境对多源评价方式进行了匹配。然而, 目前国内关于多源评价的定量研究, 却几乎没有; 这与国外的研究文献产生了很大的反差。本文基于国外关于多源评价的实证研究, 从评价过程、评价源(① 本文中的评价源指代同一类别评价者的集合, 而评价者则指代单个的评价人。)及被评价者三方面, 对国外多源评价的特点及内在机制进行探讨, 旨在总结现有研究的不足, 并提出未来的研究方向。针对内在机制, 本文主要围绕评价结果, 分析评价过程、评价源对于评价结果的影响, 评价者对评价结果反应的影响因素, 以及各因素间的相互作用, 如图1所示。

图1

图1   多源评价的结构图


2 多源评价过程

2.1 评价目的

多源评价最初主要以帮助员工自身发展为目的(London & Smither, 1995), 通过识别员工的优缺点, 制定相应的绩效改进计划, 以促进员工发展。如Wong和Kwong (2007)提出, 多源评价应以追求和谐、追求公平、识别员工优缺点及激励员工为目的。随着多源评价在实际运用中的不断发展, 其评价目的也变得更为丰富。比如, 不少企业开始将多源评价运用于管理目的。London (2001)认为多源评价既适用于发展目的, 也可用于管理目的, 但若运用到管理活动中则需花费更多时间。当多源评价以员工个人发展为目的时, 会减少评价者和被评价者的顾虑, 评价者会作出更诚实的评价, 评价结果也更容易被接受(Rogers, Rogers, & Metlay, 2002)。而当多源评价运用于管理目的时, 由于评价结果与员工的奖金、晋升等相关, 为了追求和谐的组织氛围, 评价者往往会提高对员工的评价, 从而更易导致宽大效应的出现(Chappelow, 2004)。有趣的是, 最近研究发现当多源评价同时用于管理与发展目的时, 被评价者由于受到两大目的的同时激励, 相对于单一评价目的来说, 评价结果对员工知识共享能力的影响将增强(Kim, Atwater, Patel, & Smither, 2016)。可见, 多源评价的评价目的由单一性向多重性发展, 企业在运用多源评价时, 应根据自身特点及发展需求, 设立多重而清晰的多源评价目的。

2.2 评价形式

在多源评价过程中一般采用匿名的形式进行评价, 因为当评价者得知个人信息不会被泄露时, 他们会作出更真实而准确的评价(Brutus & Derayeh, 2002)。特别是下级评价中, 当下级员工给与管理者较低评分时, 常担心上级领导的报复行为, 从而导致他们提高对管理者的评分(Atwater, Brett, & Charles, 2007)。因此, 多源评价过程应坚持匿名性原则, 以保证评价结果的准确性。同时, 评价量表的制定也对评价结果有一定的影响。多源评价过程中, 一般以李克特量表的形式, 让评价者进行打分。但Brown, Inceoglu和Lin (2017)提出, 李克特量表会带来较强的反应偏差(response biases), 而采用强迫排序(forced-choice ranking)来替代李克特量表, 能降低评价误差, 从而提高评价者间的一致性。可见, 从改进评价量表形式的角度入手, 来提高评价者间的一致性, 是未来研究值得探讨的问题。另外, 在反馈结果的呈现上, Atwater等(2007)的研究结果显示, 相对于文字型的反馈结果来说, 被评价者更喜欢数字型的反馈, 因为文字型的反馈常表达得含糊不清, 而数字型的反馈则更为具体而易懂。

2.3 评价后的引导机制

有研究发现, 在多源评价结束几个月之后, 大多员工将记不起绩效评价的结果, 特别是关于其弱点方面的内容(Smither, Brett, & Atwater, 2008)。而此时若配一名优秀的引导者(如有经验的老员工), 将会提高员工对反馈结果的感知有用性及自我意识, 降低其对负面反馈的消极情绪, 增加其改进动力, 从而最终获得绩效提升(Luthans & Peterson, 2003)。另外, 相关学者还发现上级的领导风格或行为, 会影响员工的后续绩效改进行为。如教练式领导风格能负向显著地影响, 员工对绩效评价中组织政治(organizational politcis)的感知, 即绩效评价过程是否公正严明或受到其他政治因素的影响(Russo, Miraglia, & Borgogni, 2017); 而领导的自主支持行为, 会促进员工的反馈寻求行为, 让员工更主动积极的, 根据反馈结果来提高个人绩效(Beenen, Pichler, & Levy, 2017)。因而, 在员工收到多源评价结果后, 应尽量为其分配一名优秀的引导者, 帮助其更好地利用评价结果, 来获得自身能力的提高。同时, 领导者也应以身作则, 通过树立良好的领导风格与行为, 潜移默化地影响员工的后续绩效改进活动。

3 多源评价中的评价源

相对于传统的绩效评价, 多源评价的最大特点就是拥有不同的评价源, 关于顾客这一评价源的研究较少, 因此本文涉及的评价源主要包括上级、同级、下级及被评价者本身。

3.1 评价源间的评价一致性

虽然已有研究证明了, 多源评价中自我评价、同级评价、上级评价及下级评价间的测量等价性, 即表明不同评价源间的评价结果, 可直接进行比较(Facteau & Craig, 2001; Woehr, Sheehan, & Bennett, 2005)。然而, 由于员工在各类评价源面前, 所表现的行为不同(Braddy, Gooty, Fleenor, & Yammarino, 2014), 各类评价源所关注的重点也有差异(Semeijn, Van Der Heijden, & Van Der Lee, 2014), 因而带来了不同评价源间一致性的问题。以往研究证实了, 多源评价中不同评价源间的评价一致性较低(Hassan & Rohrbaugh, 2009; Beus, Jarrett, Bergman, & Payne, 2012; Braddy et al., 2014)。如Semeijn等(2014)认为, 同级评价与下级评价间的分歧最大, 且同类评价源的内部一致性, 要高于评价源间的一致性。同时, 相关学者还从各个方面探讨了其原因, 包括评价者个性特征(Randall & Sharples, 2012), 工作环境氛围(Rosen, Kacmar, Harris, Gavin, & Hochwarter, 2017), 及文化特征(Atwater, Wang, Smither, & Fleenor, 2009; Eckert, Ekelund, Gentry, & Dawson, 2010)等。其中, 文化的影响作用具体表现为, Atwater等(2009)探讨了国家文化对于自我-他人评价间一致性的调节作用, 并得出在高独断性(assertiveness)及高权力距离(power distance)的文化背景下, 管理者的自我评价与同级评价、下级评价间的一致性相对更高。另外, 评价源间的不一致问题, 会同时影响评价者与被评价者的行为。Amundsen和Martinsen (2014)的研究证明, 在对中层管理者进行授权领导行为评价时, 自我评价低于上级评价时, 该管理者的领导效能更高; 当自我评价高于下级评价时, 下级的工作满意度则更低, 离职倾向相对更高。Kopperud, Martinsen和Humborstad (2014)证明了, 中层管理者的自我评价低于下级评价时, 组织的服务氛围(service climate)会更高。

在多源评价一致性问题研究中, 自我评价与他人评价间的一致性(self-others rating agreement)问题受到的关注最多(Amundsen & Martinsen, 2014; Kopperud et al., 2014; Markham, Markham, & Smith, 2015)。自我-他人评价一致性, 通常受到性别、年龄及种族等人口统计特征, 个性品质及相关外在环境的影响(Fleenor, Smither, Atwater, Braddy, & Sturm, 2010)。如男性和年老的员工容易高估自己的绩效(Vecchio & Anderson, 2009), 黑人相对于白人来说常为高估者(Bernardin, Konopaske, & Hagan, 2012)。另外, 由于不同评价源间的一致性较低, 以往对评价结果直接平均的做法, 会造成部分重要信息的丢失(Markham et al., 2014)。因此, Markham等学者基于组内和组间分析(within and between analysis), 利用相关指标, 探讨了多源评价中同一评价源组内平均(Markham et al., 2014)以及不同评价源组间平均, 包括自我-下级评价间(Markham et al., 2015)和自我-同级评价间(Markham, Markham, & Smith, 2017)的平均问题, 并得出不是任何时候都能对多源评价结果, 采用直接平均的方式, 需满足一定的标准条件。可见, 如何提高多源评价中不同评价源间的一致性问题, 是今后多源评价研究的重要方向。

3.2 评价源与评价偏误

晕轮效应(halo effect)和宽大效应(leniency effect), 是多源评价过程中常见的两大评价偏误(rating biases) (Pulakos & O’Leary, 2011), 影响着绩效评价的有效性(Hoffman et al., 2010; Ng, Koh, Ang, Kennedy, & Chan, 2011; O’Neill, Goffin, & Gellatly, 2012) 。其中, 晕轮效应指在被评价者某种特征的影响下, 形成固有的印象, 从而产生以偏概全的认知偏误; 而宽大效应则指评价者在对他人的评价的过程中, 相对于负面评价, 更倾向于正面的肯定与夸赞。

基于对相关文献(Antonioni & Park, 2001; Ng et al., 2011等)的总结分析, 不同评价源产生评价偏误的概率存在差异。其中, 自我评价过程中出现宽大效应的概率相对最大, 却较少出现晕轮效应。基于归因理论和自我提升理论, 这可能是因为个体为了维持较好的自我感觉, 会扭曲部分信息, 把成功的原因归于自己, 而将失败归结于环境或他人的问题。在下级评价中, 两类评价偏误出现的概率都很大, 且会随着对被评价者观察时间的增加而增强(Antonioni & Park, 2001)。这与下级对上级评价时, 担心其会受到报复行为的心理有关。同级评价出现两类评价偏误的可能性差不多, 常处于选择正面评价或负面评价之间徘徊。因而, 相对于其他评价源来说, 上级评价的结果相对更准确。

另外, 评价偏误受评价者与被评价者间的工作关联性影响。如Spence和Keeping (2010)提出, 评价者的动机会影响其对被评价者的评分, 如上级为了培养下属忠诚度, 会夸大其业绩; 下级为了避免上级的报复, 会故意抬高对其评分; 而同级之间, 由于存在竞争关系, 可能会故意压低评分。评价者的自身特点, 也会影响评价偏误及评价准确性。如评价者的自我建构(self-construal) (Mishra & Roch, 2013), 人格特征如责任感(Mero, Guidice, & Brownlee, 2007; Bernardin, Tyler, & Villanova, 2009) 及随和性(Wood, Harms, & Vazire, 2010; Bono, Hooper, & Yoon, 2012)等因素。Bernardin, Thomason, Buckley和Kane (2016)的最新研究发现, 随和性较高, 自信心较低及绩效管理能力较差的评价者, 更易带来评价偏误, 降低评价的准确性。同时, 文化也会对不同评价源的评价造成影响。比如, 个人主义倾向高的管理者, 会更容易提高对自我的评价(Xie, Chen, & Roy, 2006); 若组织文化宣扬 “合作”而不是“竞争”, 则同级评价中故意压低评分的现象将减少(Conway, Lombardo, & Sanders, 2001)。Kossek, Huang, Piszczek, Fleenor和Ruderman (2017)证明, 评价者与被评价者间的文化距离(culture distance), 即两者的文化差异程度, 也会影响评价结果, 并受到文化特征的调节作用, 具体表现为, 在低权力距离和高人性取向的环境下, 文化距离对同级评价的负面影响作用, 会相对减弱。

4 多源评价中的被评价者

4.1 对评价过程的接受性

个体对多源评价过程的接受意愿, 受到自身个性特征的影响。如具有开放精神的员工, 会更愿意接受多源评价, 并认为其是有价值的(Smither, London, & Reilly, 2005); 自我效能感(self-efficacy)较高的个体, 对多源评价持有更积极的态度, 并在绩效评价之后获得更多的提升(Heslin & Latham, 2004)。因为, 自我效能感较高的个体, 会关注如何分析和解决问题, 而不是一味地担心失败。Atwater等(2007)的研究也发现, 具有较高自我效能感的个体, 在绩效评价之后更愿意与评价者见面, 与上级领导讨论, 并制定相关的改进目标, 同时也会更有动力使用绩效评价结果。而具有犬儒思想的个体, 对组织持嘲讽态度时, 即不相信组织中存在积极的改变, 或认为个人努力在组织中无意义, 会更容易拒绝多源评价(McCarthy & Garavan, 2007)。另外, 组织文化也会影响个体对多源评价的接受度。London和Smither (2002)提出, 如果组织内建立了“反馈文化(feedback culture)”, 即个体经常接受或请求, 获得正式或非正式的反馈来提高自己的工作绩效, 个体会更愿意接受多源评价。

4.2 对评价结果的反应

当个体收到多源评价结果后, 受各种因素的影响, 会表现出不同的反应(reaction), 但学者们对“反应”的相关概念并没有统一的标准(Pichler, 2012; Brown & Benson, 2003)。基于对现有研究的总结分析, 本文将个体对评价结果的反应分为三类:感知反应, 包括准确性、公平性及有用性; 情感反应, 包括满意度, 积极情绪与消极情绪; 行为反应, 包括绩效改进动力, 设立更具体的目标, 与他人分享评价结果, 向上级领导求助等。同时, 还分析了三大个体反应间的相互关系, 如图2所示。当被评价者感知评价结果是准确、公平且有效的, 会提高其对评价结果的情感反应, 表现出较高的满意度及积极的情绪, 从而增强其行为反应, 具体表现为充满改进动力, 设置具体的目标计划, 向他人分享结果, 并寻求帮助等。

图2

图2   个体对多源评价评价结果的反应


员工对多源评价结果的反应, 受到很多因素的影响, 包括评分值(高或低)、个性特征、反馈信号(正面或负面)、自我评价与他人评价间的差距等, 并受到个体目标定向、个性特征等的调节作用。其中, 绩效评价结果的分值越高, 往往被评价者的满意度也越高(Judge & Bono, 2001; Kampkötter, 2017)。然而, Luffarelli, Goncalves和Stamatogiannakis (2016)的研究表明, 该结果仅针对被评价者的社会比较倾向(social comparison orientation)较低时而成立。被评价者的个性特征的影响作用可表现为, 经验开放性较高的员工, 对评价结果更易产生较高的满意度(Krasman, 2010); 当评价结果不与奖金相关时, 评价结果对员工工作满意度的影响, 受到控制点(locus of control)及经验开放性的负向调节作用(Kampkötter, 2017)。

反馈信号(feedback sign)是指根据反馈内容的特点, 将反馈分为正面反馈和负面反馈两类。被评价者常认为正面反馈比负面反馈, 更加正确和有用(Brett & Atwater, 2001), 从而更乐意接受反馈结果(McCarthy & Garavan, 2007), 表现出较高的满意度及积极的行为反应(Culbertson, Henning, & Payne, 2013), 绩效也更易获得提高(Smither & Walker, 2004)。而负面反馈常被员工认为是不公平, 不准确, 缺乏有用性的(Brett & Atwater, 2001), 他们会选择忽视或者不接受反馈结果, 表现出较低的满意度及消极的情感反应(Culbertson et al., 2013)。但Brett和Atwater (2001)认为, 这只是短暂的情绪反应, 当几周过后, 反馈信号与感知反应间并不存在相关性。同时, Smither等(2005)发现当被评价者收到差评时, 刚开始会出现消极的反应, 但当6个月之后, 他们会设定更多改进目标。另外, 被评价者对正面或负面反馈结果的反应, 还受到个体目标定向的调节作用(Heslin & Latham, 2004; Culbertson et al., 2013)。

自我-他人评价间的差异, 也影响着被评价者对评价结果的反应。当自我评价高于他人评价时, 被评价者常会对反馈结果产生消极的情感反应, 而不同的评价源下的情况不同。当被评价者高估自己时, 会表现出生气、抱怨等负面情绪, 特别是收到较低的同级与上级评价时; 而对下级的负面评价则不易出现消极情绪(Brett & Atwater, 2001), 反而会负向影响下级的行为, 如增加下级的离职倾向(Amundsen & Martinsen, 2014)。当自我评价低于他人评价时, 虽然不一定会带来积极的行为反应(Brett & Atwater, 2001), 但被评价者的满意度会变得更高(Bono & Colbert, 2005), 且受到相关调节变量如员工的核心自我评价(Bono & Colbert, 2005), 评价分值高低(Atwater & Brett, 2005)等的影响。另外, 组织环境也会影响员工对评价结果的反应。如Miller, Verbos, & Goswami (2014)证明了工作的环境与相关资源、公司沟通交流的开放程度、与同事间的关系及为准备绩效评价所投入的时间, 都会正向影响员工对绩效评价结果的反应。

5 多源评价结果

多源评价的核心目的是通过对员工多方面的评价, 最终提升其绩效。以往研究证明了多源评价后, 员工行为发生了改变, 绩效获得了提升(London & Smither, 1995), 且工作满意度也被提高, 离职率降低, 工作投入感更强(Atwater & Brett, 2006)。Shipper, Hoffman和Rotondo (2007)证实了360度反馈能够带来认知、情感、行为及产出成果的提升, 但受到国家文化的影响作用, 具体表现为, 在低权力距离及高个人主义的文化背景下, 360度反馈会相对更有效。然而, 也有学者得出的评价结果不确定(Carson, 2006)。Kim等(2016)认为, 多源评价对于组织绩效的影响是间接的, 主要通过提高员工的能力与知识共享技能, 从而提高财务业绩。

综上所述, 虽然多源评价在国外企业中的发展已较为成熟, 但其所带来的最终绩效改进效果却并不稳定。基于对现有文献的梳理与总结, 本文以被评价者的“感知反应-情感反应-行为反应-绩效改进结果”为主线, 将多源评价中所涉及的主要因素间的相互关系, 作出了如下图3所示的结构图。从图3中可看出, 影响员工最终绩效是否能够提升的因素很多, 包括直接效应与间接效应, 如员工对反馈结果的感知反应、情感反应及行为反应的不同, 都会导致不同的绩效改进结果。因此, 绩效改进结果的研究结论出现差异, 也是符合情理的。

6 结论与研究展望

6.1 结论

多源评价已成功的在许多企业中运行, 不仅带来了个人绩效提升, 还能推动组织的进一步发展(Karkoulian, Assaker, & Hallak, 2016)。本文从多源评价过程、评价源及被评价者三个方面, 对国外多源评价的特点及内在机制进行了总结与分析。发现多源评价所带来的绩效改进结果并不稳定, 并受到各种影响因素的直接或间接的影响。从上图3中可得, 各变量间的关系错综复杂, 其中个体对反馈结果的情感反应及行为反应, 受到的影响因素最多。而文化特征、个人性格特点及个体目标定向, 是多源评价研究中常用的调节变量。因此, 企业若是在运用多源评价之前, 能搞清楚评价前后所涉变量间的相关关系, 对有效地运用多源评价将大有裨益。

图3

图3   多源评价中所涉及的主要因素


另外, 多源绩效评价不能直接引用, 需根据本国的文化特点等, 进行相应的改进与完善(Harbi, Thursfield, & Bright, 2017)。因而, 多源评价在我国企业中运用时, 应注意与我国文化特点相结合。具体来说, 我国的文化特征主要表现为, 高权力距离、集体主义、不确定性规避程度较高, 以及注重人际关系, 即所谓的“关系文化”。在该文化背景下, 较容易出现下级夸大对上级的绩效评价, 同部门员工间相互评价被抬高, 而压低对其他部门员工的评价等偏误。同时, 较高的不确定性规避文化背景, 也难以适应多源评价所需的高度开放性和互动性。为了避免上述评价偏误的发生, 我国企业在运用多源评价时, 应该制定严格且透明的绩效考核体系, 避免“形式化”, 如让员工明确考核目的及重要性, 制定合理的考核指标, 建立起组织的“反馈文化”, 真正遵循公开、公正及公平原则。

6.2 未来研究展望

通过上述分析, 发现多源评价所带来的绩效改进结果并不稳定。因而, 未来的研究应从如何改进多源评价, 以获得稳定的绩效改进结果方面, 进一步开展相关的研究。

第一, 关于如何提高评价多源评价过程的有效性与准确性问题, 目前的研究还很少。绩效评价系统本身特点、员工个人特征及其与评价者间的关系, 都影响着员工看待绩效评价的可视性、有效性及公平性(Sumelius, Björkman, Ehrnrooth, Mäkelä, & Smale, 2014)。当员工认为绩效评价过程不公平时, 会表现出负面态度, 如降低组织认同感(Farndale & Kelliher, 2013), 并影响其工作满意度(Yamazaki & Yoon, 2016)。因而, 对多源评价过程的有效性进行评估与衡量, 对于整个绩效评价的完善与改进有着重要影响。可参考对传统绩效评价有效性, 所提出的相关标准及评价结构, 如结合评价的目的性、公平性、准确性, 以及该三大标准与被评价者反应间的关系, 提出评估绩效评价效果的相关指标与方法(Iqbal, Akbar, & Budhwar, 2015; Ikramullah, van Prooijen, Lqbal, & Ul-Hassan, 2016) 。

第二, 被评价者对评价结果的反应, 对其后续的绩效改进行为影响较大。然而, 关于个体对评价结果反应的研究中, 学者们对被评价者的“反应”界定不清晰。基于此, 本文将个体反应分为三类, 并提出了“感知反应-情感反应-行为反应”的基本路径, 但该分类及三者之间的关系是否准确, 还需要未来作进一步验证与探讨。今后的研究可在本文的基础上, 针对细分的“反应”类型, 对被评价者对多源评价结果的反应进行更深入的探讨, 通过改善被评价者对评价结果的反应情况, 从而促进其绩效改进行为。

最后, 如何对多源评价结果进行汇总, 也是重要的研究问题。多源评价过程中, 对不同的评价主体的评分, 大多都是以总平均的方式汇总, 或保持每类评价源的独立评分。然而, 不同的评价源的观察角度有差异, 应根据不同的评价指标, 予以不同的评价权重。比如, 在团队合作能力考核指标中, 同一团队的同级评价者与被评价者接触时间更多, 对被评价者在团队合作方面的能力相对更了解, 因而同级评价所占权重应最大。关于多源评价中不同评价源评分的赋权问题, 目前还少有文献讨论过。虽然Markham等(2014, 2015, 2017)提出不能对多源评价结果直接平均, 但其并没有对各评价源间如何赋权进行研究。对每类评价源给与科学合理的权重, 能给员工提供更准确的反馈结果, 从而促进其后续绩效改进行为。因而, 未来的研究应注重如何对评价结果进行科学有效的汇总, 以减少不同评价源带来的偏误。

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Abstract Individual climate perceptions (i.e., psychological climates) are often aggregated to form group-level climates without considering the equivalence of the meaning of climate within groups. Confirming perceptual equivalence across faultlines – within-group dividing lines that can create subgroups based on the alignment of group member attributes ( Lau & Murnighan, 1998 ) – is a particularly important concern given that sense-making processes and subsequent psychological climates are likely to differ across faultlines. Using safety climate as an exemplar, we demonstrate the importance of assessing qualitative perceptual equivalence (i.e., perceptions of what a climate is) within groups instead of solely relying on traditional agreement indices (e.g., r wg , intraclass correlation [ICC]) to make aggregation decisions. Specifically, we tested for perceptual equivalence across context-specific faultlines (hierarchical level and organizational heritage) in a large, multinational organization using multi-group hierarchical confirmatory factor analyses and found that although traditional agreement indices universally supported aggregation decisions, tests of perceptual equivalence in 8 of 12 separate subgroup analyses failed to support aggregation. These findings confirm the importance of testing for perceptual equivalence within groups before aggregating psychological climates to the group level. Practitioner points 6168Our findings underscore the value for organizations to consider the potential existence of faultlines and to examine their possible influence on employee climate perceptions. 6168These findings also point to the need for organizations to promote qualitative equivalence of climate perceptions among employees independent of the potential existence of faultlines.

Bono,J. E, & Colbert, A. E . ( 2005).

Understanding responses to multi-source feedback: The role of core self-evaluations

Personnel Psychology, 58( 1), 171-203.

DOI:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2005.00633.x      URL     [本文引用: 2]

Abstract This longitudinal study examines the role of core self-evaluations in responses to multisource feedback. Consistent with past research, feedback recipients were most satisfied when others' ratings were high. Core self-evaluations was not related to satisfaction with feedback, but was positively linked to goal commitment 4 months after feedback. Polynomial regression results reveal a complex pattern of associations among core self-evaluations, ratings, satisfaction, and commitment to developmental goals. Specifically, individuals with high core self-evaluations were most committed to developmental goals when self and others' ratings were discrepant. In contrast, individuals with low core self-evaluations were most committed to developmental goals when self and others' ratings were in agreement. Our results question the notion that satisfaction with feedback affects motivation to improve and highlight the importance of personality in motivation to improve following feedback. We discuss practical and theoretical implications of our findings and provide a theoretical framework for future research.

Bono J. E., Hooper A. C., & Yoon D. J . ( 2012).

Impact of rater personality on transformational and transactional leadership ratings

The Leadership Quarterly, 23( 1), 132-145.

DOI:10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.11.011      URL     [本文引用: 1]

This study addresses the role of rater personality in ratings of transformational and transactional leadership. In a naturalistic field study, we found that rater personality (i.e., agreeableness, openness, extraversion, and conscientiousness) was positively associated with ratings of transformational leadership, but significant rater personality effects were not found in an experimental study where leadership behavior was invariant. These results suggest that disagreements among raters about leaders' behaviors are not due solely to random error and may instead reflect true differences either in (a) the behaviors leaders exhibit toward individual followers or (b) personality-related differences between followers in attention to and recall of leadership behaviors. We also found that personality (of subordinates and peers) was not randomly distributed across leaders, though clustering effects were generally small. Practically, our results suggest that (a) individual reports of leadership may be better at predicting leadership outcomes than aggregated group reports especially those related to individual attitudes and behaviors though they are rarely used in the literature; (b) aggregation is complicated because rater personality is associated with leadership ratings and is not randomly distributed across leaders; and (c) corrections for measurement error based on inter-rater agreement may not be appropriate due to non-random unique rater variance.

Braddy P. W., Gooty J., Fleenor J. W., & Yammarino F. J . ( 2014).

Leader behaviors and career derailment potential: A multi-analytic method examination of rating source and self-other agreement

The Leadership Quarterly, 25( 2), 373-390.

DOI:10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.10.001      URL     [本文引用: 2]

Based on extensive research that views leadership as a multi-faceted phenomenon, we examined how the relationships between task-oriented and relationship-oriented leader behaviors and career derailment potential vary by observer perspective. We present findings using three different analytical techniques: random coefficient modeling (RCM), relative weight analysis (RWA), and polynomial regression (PR). RCM findings suggest that self-, direct report, peer, and supervisor ratings of leader behaviors differ and are associated with career derailment potential. RWA results indicate that self-ratings matter the least, whereas peer ratings of leader behaviors typically matter the most in predicting career derailment potential. PR analyses indicate that career derailment potential is lowest when self-ratings are lower than other ratings of leader behaviors and/or when self–other ratings converge on higher, rather than lower, ratings of leader behaviors. Implications for leadership and self–other agreement research and professional practice are discussed.

Brett,J. F., & Atwater, L. E . ( 2001).

360° feedback: Accuracy, reactions, and perceptions of usefulness

Journal of Applied Psychology, 86( 5), 930-942.

DOI:10.1037//0021-9010.86.5.930      URL     [本文引用: 5]

ABSTRACT This study examined how 360° feedback ratings and self–other rating discrepancies related to reactions to feedback, perceptions of feedback accuracy, perceived usefulness of the feedback, and recipients' receptivity to development. The results indicated that less favorable ratings were related to beliefs that feedback was less accurate and to negative reactions. Negative reactions and perceptions that feedback was less accurate were related to beliefs that the feedback was less useful. Those who found feedback less useful were perceived by a facilitator as less development-focused. Goal orientation did not moderate the relationship between ratings and perceptions of accuracy or reactions to feedback. Goal orientation was related to perceptions of usefulness of the process several weeks after receipt of feedback. The results question widely held assumptions about 360° feedback that negative and discrepant feedback motivates positive change. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Brown, M.,& Benson, J.(2003).

Rated to exhaustion? Reactions to performance appraisal processes

Industrial Relations Journal, 34( 1), 67-81.

DOI:10.1111/1468-2338.00259      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Performance appraisal systems are a popular tool within organisations to enhance employee commitment and productivity. This paper examines the consequences of three aspects of a performance appraisal system (distributive justice, procedural justice and the performance rating) on the level of emotional exhaustion reported by employees in a large public sector research organisation.

Brown A., Inceoglu I., & Lin Y . ( 2017).

Preventing rater biases in 360-degree feedback by forcing choice

Organizational Research Methods, 20( 1), 121-148.

DOI:10.1177/1094428116668036      URL     [本文引用: 1]

We examined the effects of response biases on 360-degree feedback using a large sample (N=4,675) of organizational appraisal data. Sixteen competencies were assessed by peers, bosses and subordinates of 922 managers, as well as self-assessed, using the Inventory of Management Competencies (IMC) administered in two formats – Likert scale and multidimensional forced choice. Likert ratings were subject to strong response biases, making even theoretically unrelated competencies correlate highly. Modeling a latent common method factor, which represented non-uniform distortions similar to those of “ideal-employee” factor in both self- and other assessments, improved validity of competency scores as evidenced by meaningful second-order factor structures, better inter-rater agreement, and better convergent correlations with an external personality measure. Forced-choice rankings modelled with Thurstonian IRT yielded as good construct and convergent validities as the bias-controlled Likert ratings, and slightly better rater agreement. We suggest that the mechanism for these enhancements is finer differentiation between behaviors in comparative judgements, and advocate the operational use of the multidimensional forced-choice response format as an effective bias prevention method.

Brutus, S.,& Derayeh, M.(2002).

Multisource assessment programs in organizations: An insider's perspective

Human Resource Development Quarterly, 13( 2), 187-202.

DOI:10.1002/hrdq.1023      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Abstract This study is an overview of multisource assessment (MSA) practices in organizations. As a performance evaluation process, MSA can take various forms and can be complex for an organization to use. Although the literature on MSA is extensive, little information exists on how these programs are perceived by the individuals responsible for their implementation and maintenance. The purpose of this study was twofold: to describe the current MSA practices used in organizations and to assess the issues associated with implementation and management of these practices from the perspective of the individual responsible for managing an MSA program. One hundred one companies located in Canada were surveyed for the study; almost half of these organizations (43 percent) were using MSA. Interviews of managers responsible for MSA in various organizations and some archival data on these organizations were the main source of data for the study. The study revealed that the use of MSA differs widely from one company to another. In addition, results show that, once implemented, MSA requires a number of adjustments. The source of these adjustments centered on employee resistance, lack of strategic purpose for MSA, poor design of the instrument, and problems with the technology used to support MSA. These results are discussed and a proposed research agenda is outlined.

Carson, M.(2006).

Saying it like it isn't: The pros and cons of 360-degree feedback

Business Horizons, 49( 5), 395-402.

DOI:10.1016/j.bushor.2006.01.004      URL     [本文引用: 1]

In corporate America, the use of 360-degree feedback continues to rise. Is this tool, though, all it purports to be? Used with caution, the feedback process can provide meaningful information for both the organization and the individuals involved. Misuse of the process, however, can lead to hurt feelings, increased anxiety, and even loss of key personnel. This small case study showcases key research findings on best practices for using the 360-design feedback process, especially regarding intended use of feedback, aligning performance measures with organizational goals, and selecting and training participants.

Chappelow,C. T . ( 2004).

360-degree feedback

In C. D. McCauley & E. van Velsor (Eds.), The center for creative leadership handbook of leadership development (pp. 58-84). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

[本文引用: 1]

Conway J. M., Lombardo K., & Sanders K. C . ( 2001).

A meta-analysis of incremental validity and nomological networks for subordinate and peer rating

Human Performance, 14( 4), 267-303.

DOI:10.1207/S15327043HUP1404_1      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Use of subordinates and peers for job performance ratings has increased markedly in recent years, on the assumption that these sources cover different parts of the criterion space and provide incremental validity over and above supervisors. This study directly tested this assumption using a meta-analytically derived correlation matrix including supervisor-, subordinate-, and peer-ratings as well as objective performance measures. Hierarchical regression results showed that both subordinates and peers accounted for significant variance in objective measures, over and above other sources. Further meta-analyses investigated nomological networks of subordinate and peer ratings, specifically relations with personality and ability measures. Ability correlations for peers and especially subordinates were lower than those previously found for supervisors. Correlations for personality dimensions affiliation and agreeableness, although low, were somewhat higher than previous supervisor values. Results provide justification for the added expense of including subordinates and peers in a rating system.

Culbertson S. S., Henning J. B., & Payne S. C . ( 2013).

Performance appraisal satisfaction

Journal of Personnel Psychology, 12( 4), 189-195.

DOI:10.1027/1866-5888/a000096      URL     [本文引用: 3]

Eckert R., Ekelund B. Z., Gentry W. A., & Dawson J. F . ( 2010).

I don't see me like you see me, but is that a problem? Cultural influences on rating discrepancy in 360-degree feedback instruments

European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 19( 3), 259-278.

DOI:10.1080/13594320802678414      URL     [本文引用: 1]

360-degree feedback from a variety of rater sources yields important information about leaders' styles, strengths and weaknesses for development. Results where observer ratings are discrepant (i.e., different) from self-ratings are often seen as indicators of problematic leadership relationships, skills, or lack of self-awareness. Yet research into the antecedents of such self–observer rating discrepancy suggests the presence of systematic influences, such as cultural values. The present study investigates the variation of rating discrepancies on three leadership skills (decision making, leading employees, and composure) in dependence of one exemplary culture dimension (power distance) on data from 31 countries using multilevel structural equation modelling. Results show that cultural values indeed predict self–observer rating discrepancies. Thus, systemic and contextual influences such as culture need to be taken into consideration when interpreting the importance and meaning of self–observer rating discrepancies in 360-degree instruments.

Facteau,J. D., & Craig, S. B . ( 2001).

Are performance appraisal ratings from different rating sources comparable?

Journal of Applied Psychology, 86( 2), 215-227.

DOI:10.1037//0021-9010.86.2.215      URL     PMID:11393435      [本文引用: 1]

Abstract The purpose of this study was to test whether a multisource performance appraisal instrument exhibited measurement invariance across different groups of raters. Multiple-groups confirmatory factor analysis as well as item response theory (IRT) techniques were used to test for invariance of the rating instrument across self, peer, supervisor, and subordinate raters. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the rating instrument was invariant across these rater groups. The IRT analysis yielded some evidence of differential item and test functioning, but it was limited to the effects of just 3 items and was trivial in magnitude. Taken together, the results suggest that the rating instrument could be regarded as invariant across the rater groups, thus supporting the practice of directly comparing their ratings. Implications for research and practice are discussed, as well as for understanding the meaning of between-source rating discrepancies.

Farndale, E.,& Kelliher, C.(2013).

Implementing performance appraisal: Exploring the employee experience

Human Resource Management, 52( 6), 879-897.

DOI:10.1002/hrm.21575      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Abstract Line managers play an important role as implementers of performance appraisal, enacting procedures designed by the HR function. However, the actual employee experience of these procedures (which may differ from how they were intended or enacted) in terms of perceptions of justice in the process is likely to have consequences for levels of organizational commitment. Furthermore, based on signaling theory, the broader organizational climate, measured here in terms of the level of trust employees have in the senior management, sets the context in which this experience takes shape. Presenting multilevel analysis of 4,422 employees across 22 business units, we show that organizational units with high trust in senior management have both higher levels of commitment, and show a stronger link between employee perceptions of fair treatment by their line manager during performance appraisal, and organizational commitment. This provides initial evidence that the impact of line manager actions is important for employee-level outcomes but is also constrained by the organizational climate. 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Fleenor J. W., Smither J. W., Atwater L. E., Braddy P. W., & Sturm R. E . ( 2010).

Self-other rating agreement in leadership: A review

The Leadership Quarterly, 21( 6), 1005-1034.

DOI:10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.10.006      URL     [本文引用: 1]

This paper reviews the theoretical and empirical literature on self–other rating agreement (SOA) related to leadership in the workplace, focusing primarily on research published between 1997 (the year of Atwater & Yammarino's seminal paper on SOA) and the present. Much of the current interest in SOA derives from its purported relationships with self-awareness and leader effectiveness. The literature, however, has used a variety of metrics to assess SOA, resulting in discrepancies between findings across studies. As multi-rater (360-degree; multisource) feedback instruments continue to be widely used as a measure of leadership in organizations, it is important that we more clearly understand the relationships between SOA and its predictors and outcomes. To this end, in this article, we review (a) models of agreement, (b) factors affecting self-ratings and the congruence between self–others' ratings, (c) factors affecting others' ratings, (d) correlates of agreement, and (e) measurement issues and data analytic techniques. We conclude with discussions of practitioner issues and directions for future research.

Harbi S. A., Thursfield D., & Bright D . ( 2017).

Culture, Wasta and perceptions of performance appraisal in Saudi Arabia

The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 28( 19), 2792-2810.

DOI:10.1080/09585192.2016.1138987      URL     [本文引用: 1]

(2016). Culture, Wasta and perceptions of performance appraisal in Saudi Arabia. The International Journal of Human Resource Management. Ahead of Print. doi: 10.1080/09585192.2016.1138987

Hassan, S.,& Rohrbaugh, J.(2009).

Incongruity in 360-degree feedback ratings and competing managerial values: Evidence from a public agency setting

International Public Management Journal, 12( 4), 421-449.

DOI:10.1080/10967490903103375      URL     [本文引用: 1]

This study examined the sources, patterns, and implications of incongruence in 360-degree feedback ratings in public organizations using the Competing Values Framework for organizational effectiveness. Performance self-ratings from 68 high-performing, middle-level public sector managers, as well as parallel ratings provided by their supervisors, peers, and subordinates, were assembled and analyzed. Results indicated that rating incongruence existed across organizational roles and resulted from raters' unique role perspectives. Implications of incongruence in 360-degree feedback ratings with respect to developing effective systems for management development in public organizations are discussed in detail.

Heslin,P. A., & Latham, G. P . ( 2004).

The effect of upward feedback on managerial behavior

Applied Psychology, 53( 1), 23-37.

DOI:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2004.00159.x      URL     [本文引用: 2]

Abstract Un feed-back de gratification a été donné par des subordonnés aux managers australiens d’une firme internationale de prestation de services. Dans cette recherche quasi-expérimentale, la perfomance au travail de ces managers, a pu être observée six mois plus tard par les subordonnés comme s’étant accrue par rapport à la performance initiale et à ceux obtenus par un groupe de comparaison. L’efficacité personnelle modère la portée de ces résultats suggérant qu’elle joue un r00le clé en déterminant des réactions comportementales au feed-back de gratification. L’orientation vers un but d’apprentissage fut corrélée de manière significative à leur performance subséquente. Upward feedback from subordinates was provided to Australian managers in an international professional services firm. The job performance of the managers in this quasi-experimental study was observed by subordinates to be significantly higher six months later, compared to both initial performance and subordinate ratings of a comparison group. Self-efficacy moderated this finding, suggesting that it plays a key role in determining behavioral reactions to upward feedback. The managers’ learning goal orientation correlated significantly with their subsequent performance.

Hoffman B., Lance C. E., Bynum B., & Gentry W. A . ( 2010).

Rater source effects are alive and well after all

Personnel Psychology, 63( 1), 119-151.

DOI:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2009.01164.x      URL     [本文引用: 2]

Recent research has questioned the importance of rater perspective effects on multisource performance ratings (MSPRs). Although making a valuable contribution, we hypothesize that this research has obscured evidence for systematic rater source effects as a result of misspecified models of the structure of multisource performance ratings and inappropriate analytic methods. Accordingly, this study provides a reexamination of the impact of rater source on multisource performance ratings by presenting a set of confirmatory factor analyses of two large samples of multisource performance rating data in which source effects are modeled in the form of second-order factors. Hierarchical confirmatory factor analysis of both samples revealed that the structure of multisource performance ratings can be characterized by general performance, dimensional performance, idiosyncratic rater, and source factors, and that source factors explain (much) more variance in multisource performance ratings whereas general performance explains (much) less variance than was previously believed. These results reinforce the value of collecting performance data from raters occupying different organizational levels and have important implications for research and practice.

Ikramullah M., Van Prooijen J. W., Lqbal M. Z., & Ul-Hassan F. S . ( 2016).

Effectiveness of performance appraisal: Developing a conceptual framework using competing values approach

Personnel Review, 45( 2), 334-352.

DOI:10.1108/PR-07-2014-0164      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Iqbal M. Z., Akbar S., & Budhwar P . ( 2015).

Effectiveness of performance appraisal: An integrated framework

International Journal of Management Reviews, 17( 4), 510-533.

DOI:10.1111/ijmr.12050      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Based on a robust analysis of the existing literature on performance appraisal (PA), this paper makes a case for an integrated framework of effectiveness of per

Judge,T. A., & Bono, J. E . ( 2001).

Relationship of core self-evaluations traits—self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability—with job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis

Journal of Applied Psychology, 86( 1), 80-92.

DOI:10.1037/0021-9010.86.1.80      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Kampkötter, P.(2017).

Performance appraisals and job satisfaction

The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 28( 5), 750-774.

DOI:10.2139/ssrn.2469875      URL     [本文引用: 2]

Formal performance appraisals (PA) are one of the most important human resource management practices in companies. In this paper, we focus on the reaction of employees to these performance assessments. In particular, we investigate the effect between the incidence of being formally evaluated by a supervisor and job and income satisfaction. Building on a representative, longitudinal sample of more than 12,000 individuals from the German Socio-Economic Panel Study (SOEP), we apply fixed effects regressions and find a significantly positive effect of PA on job satisfaction, which is driven by appraisals that are linked to monetary outcomes. Furthermore, the moderating effects of personality traits (Big Five, locus of control) on the relationship between PA and job satisfaction are explored. We find a negative interaction term between PA without any monetary consequences and both employees scoring high on openness to experience and internal locus of control. This suggests that for these employees appraisals, which induce performance monitoring without any monetary consequences, have a detrimental effect on job satisfaction rates.

Karkoulian S., Assaker G., & Hallak R . ( 2016).

An empirical study of 360-degree feedback, organizational justice, and firm sustainability

. Journal of Business Research, 69( 5), 1862-1867.

DOI:10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.10.070      URL     [本文引用: 1]

The extensive efforts on soliciting organizational justice for employees and sustaining this justice throughout the organization have turned justice into a vital component of the organizational culture and structure. However, the conditions affecting the latter still lack research. This study tests the compound correlation between organizational justice and the application of 360-degree feedback while emphasizing the sustainability of a just and fair work environment in an organization. A sample of 400 employees occupying various positions in home appliances and electronics organizations contribute to this research. The results of the path analysis (PA) demonstrate that the implementation of 360-degree feedback in an organization not only gives rise to organizational justice, but also aids in sustaining this justice and making justice an integral part of the organizational culture.

Kim K. Y., Atwater L., Patel P. C., & Smither J. W . ( 2016).

Multisource feedback, human capital, and the financial performance of organizations

Journal of Applied Psychology, 101( 11), 1569-1584.

DOI:10.1037/apl0000125      URL     PMID:27504657      [本文引用: 2]

Abstract We investigated the relationship between organizations' use of multisource feedback (MSF) programs and their financial performance. We proposed a moderated mediation framework in which the employees' ability and knowledge sharing mediate the relationship between MSF and organizational performance and the purpose for which MSF is used moderates the relationship of MSF with employees' ability and knowledge sharing. With a sample of 253 organizations representing 8,879 employees from 2005 to 2007 in South Korea, we found that MSF had a positive effect on organizational financial performance via employees' ability and knowledge sharing. We also found that when MSF was used for dual purpose (both administrative and developmental purposes), the relationship between MSF and knowledge sharing was stronger, and this interaction carried through to organizational financial performance. However, the purpose of MSF did not moderate the relationship between MSF and employees' ability. The theoretical relevance and practical implications of the findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

Kopperud K. H., Martinsen Ø., & Humborstad, S. I. W.(2014).

Engaging leaders in the eyes of the beholder: On the relationship between transformational leadership, work engagement, service climate, and self-other agreement

Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 21( 1), 29-42.

DOI:10.1177/1548051813475666      URL     [本文引用: 2]

Abstract This study investigates whether work engagement mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and service climate. We also examine whether self-other agreement on transformational leadership act as a contingency to the expected relationships. Data were collected from two separate samples. The first sample consists of 1,226 employees of a financial services company while the second sample consists of 291 followers and 30 leaders from an audit company. The results support the view that work engagement mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and service climate. Polynomial regression and interaction analyses show that the relationship between transformational leadership and service climate is moderated by self-other agreement.

Kossek E. E., Huang J. L., Piszczek M. M., Fleenor J. W., & Ruderman M . ( 2017).

Rating expatriate leader effectiveness in multisource feedback systems: Cultural distance and hierarchical effects

Human Resource Management, 56( 1), 151-172.

DOI:10.1002/hrm.21763      URL     [本文引用: 1]

A critical challenge for global firms is to implement assessment tools to develop expatriate leaders who can effectively manage role relationships across different directions (upward, laterally, downward) in cross-national contexts. Drawing on social categorization and relational demography theories and a data set of 360-degree ratings of expatriates from 36 countries, we use multilevel modeling to investigate relationships between cultural distance and ratings of leadership effectiveness in task and contextual performance by colleagues with different hierarchical vantage points (subordinates, supervisors, peers). Cultural distance refers to the overall degree of difference in key cultural values identified in the GLOBE study between an expatriate's and coworkers countries of origin. Unlike supervisors as a rating group, results show that peer and subordinate raters as a group may be more likely to have their ratings negatively influenced by cultural distance, an effect that may be exacerbated for peer ratings from countries higher in power distance and lower in humane orientation. This study contributes to the understanding of multisource feedback systems to assess expatriate leadership effectiveness by identifying likely group ratings tendencies linked to cultural distance and hierarchical perspectives. Organizations should develop strategies to mitigate possible effects of cultural distance on subordinate and peer ratings of expatriates. 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Krasman, J.(2010).

The feedback-seeking personality: Big five and feedback-seeking behavior

Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 17( 1), 18-32.

DOI:10.1177/1548051809350895      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Abstract This study examined the influence of the Big Five domains of personality on six combinations of feedback-seeking behavior. A survey was completed by 130 full-time employees and showed the following results: Neuroticism increased indirect inquiry from supervisors and direct and indirect inquiry from coworkers. Extraversion increased direct and indirect inquiry from supervisors. Openness to experience increased reflective appraisal from supervisors and coworkers. Conscientiousness increased direct inquiry from supervisors. Agreeableness did not influence any of the feedback-seeking combinations. The variability in feedback-seeking behavior explained by the Big Five ranged from 4.2% to 7.6%. Results of this study indicate that a person's feedback-seeking behavior is partially attributable to his or her personality makeup. Keywords personality, feedback-seeking behavior, big five, performance feedback ********** Since Ashford and Cummings first introduced the concept of feedback-seeking behavior 25 years ago, research has demonstrated the value that this behavior holds for individuals and organizations (Ashford, Blatt, & VandeWalle, 2003; Ashford & Cummings, 1983). Feedback seeking increases job satisfaction, job performance, and organizational citizenship behaviors and decreases turnover intentions (Morrison, 1993; Morrison & Weldon, 1990; Renn & Fedor, 2001; Whitaker, Dahling, & Levy, 2007). People who seek feedback are perceived more positively by others (Ashford & Northcraft, 1992), especially when they ask for negative information (Ashford & Tsui, 1991). Kudisch, Fortunado, and Smith (2006) recently showed that feedback seekers are more willing to participate in upward appraisal programs, that is, provide formal ratings of their supervisor's performance. Williams, Miller, Steelman, and Levy (1999) commented that "in the feedback area, perhaps the most dominant theme of the past 15 years has been the perspective introduced by Ashford and Cummings (1983), which suggested that individuals are active seekers of feedback information" (p. 969). Given the importance of seeking feedback, researchers have strived to uncover the antecedents of this behavior. They have considered characteristics of the source from whom or which feedback is sought such as supervisor accessibility, mood, and leadership style. They have also considered characteristics of the context in which the feedback-seeking exchange takes place such as organizational structure, cross-culture, and communication media. A growing stream of research has shown that characteristics of the individual seeker such as goal orientation, need for approval, and self-monitoring also have a strong effect on a person's feedback-seeking behavior. The purpose of this study is to contribute to this stream of research by examining the influence of the Big Five domains of personality (Costa & McCrae, 1992). A strength of using the Big Five is that it is a taxonomy of personality that subsumes all human personality traits. As such, it allows the influence of the entire personality makeup on feedback-seeking behavior to be examined. This is in contrast to prior feedback-seeking studies that have considered one or a few personality traits at a time such as self-confidence, need for achievement, or self-esteem. Theoretical Overview: Big Five Domains of Personality The Big Five is a taxonomy of personality that classifies all human personality traits into five domains: neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience,...

London, M.,& Smither, J. W . ( 1995).

Can multi-source feedback change perceptions of goal accomplishment, self-evaluations, and performance-related outcomes? Theory-based applications and directions for research

Personnel Psychology, 48( 4), 803-839.

DOI:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1995.tb01782.x      URL     [本文引用: 3]

Abstract Multi-source feedback extends traditional performance appraisal by collecting information from subordinates, peers, supervisors, and customers. Ratees often receive the results along with normative data and self-ratings. This paper explores how multi-source feedback goes beyond traditional performance appraisal by providing ratees with comparative information. Focusing on person perception and information processing dynamics, this paper develops a model and associated propositions to explain the effects of multi-source feedback on perceptions of goal accomplishment, re-evaluation of self-image, and changes in outcomes such as goals, development, behavior, and performance. Moderators of relationships between the major components in the model include individual difference variables (self-image, feedback seeking, self-monitoring, task-specific self-efficacy, and impression management) and situational conditions (the content and process of multi-source feedback and organizational performance standards). Issues of research and practice intended to improve understanding and effectiveness of multi-source feedback are discussed.

London, M.(2001).

The great debate: Should multisource feedback be used for administration or development only?

In D. W. Bracken, C. W. Timmreck, & A. H. Church (Eds.), The handbook of multisource feedback: The comprehensive resource for designing and implementing MSF processes(pp. 368-385). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

[本文引用: 1]

London, M.,& Smither, J. W . ( 2002).

Feedback orientation, feedback culture, and the longitudinal performance management process

Human Resource Management Review, 12( 1), 81-100.

DOI:10.1016/S1053-4822(01)00043-2      URL     [本文引用: 1]

This paper conceptualizes feedback as part of a longitudinal performance management process influenced by, and contributing to, the individual's feedback orientation and the organization's feedback culture. Feedback orientation refers to an individual's overall receptivity to feedback, including comfort with feedback, tendency to seek feedback and process it mindfully, and the likelihood of acting on the feedback to guide behavior change and performance improvement. Feedback culture refers to the organization's support for feedback, including nonthreatening, behaviorally focused feedback, coaching to help interpret and use feedback, and a strong link between performance improvement and valued outcomes. Critical events direct attention to the value of feedback and thereby start a performance management cycle of receiving, absorbing, and applying feedback in the following days, weeks, and months. Human resource research and practice need to measure feedback orientation and culture and capture longitudinal feedback processes to better understand and influence the effects of feedback on self-awareness, self-confidence, and job performance.

Luffarelli J., Gonçalves D., & Stamatogiannakis A . ( 2016).

When feedback interventions backfire: Why higher performance feedback may result in lower self-perceived competence and satisfaction with performance

Human Resource Management, 55( 4), 591-614.

DOI:10.1002/hrm.21739      URL     [本文引用: 1]

In relative performance evaluation systems, appraisers may choose to adopt stricter or laxer evaluation criteria. When laxer (vs. stricter) criteria are used, higher absolute performance evaluations become easier (vs. harder) to achieve. Thus, each appraisee's absolute performance feedback and the mean of the distribution of absolute performance feedback are shifted upward (vs. downward). Yet, relative performance remains constant. When evaluation outcomes depend solely on relative performance, can the adoption of laxer (vs. stricter) criteria-leading to higher absolute performance feedback but no change in relative performance-influence appraisees' satisfaction with performance? Despite the ubiquity of such systems in organizations, research has not addressed this question. This article points to an important gap between practitioners' beliefs and research findings. We show that while most appraisers believe that higher absolute performance feedback will automatically result in more satisfaction with performance, the opposite may also happen. Specifically, we find that appraisees with a stronger (vs. weaker) chronic or contextual need to engage in social comparison are more satisfied with lower (vs. higher) absolute performance feedback. Overall, we demonstrate why and how feedback interventions in relative performance evaluation systems may backfire, and suggest a set of practical guidelines for maximizing appraisees' satisfaction with performance in such systems.

Luthans, F.,& Peterson, S. J . ( 2003).

360-degree feedback with systematic coaching: Empirical analysis suggests a winning combination

Human Resource Management, 42( 3), 243-256.

DOI:10.1002/hrm.10083      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Abstract Wanted: High-performance work practices to gain a competitive advantage. An increasingly common answer to this desperate call is 360-degree programs; unfortunately, they have, at best, mixed reviews when empirically assessed. This study found that a way to improve the effectiveness of 360s may be to combine them with coaching focused on enhanced self-awareness and behavioral management. In a small manufacturer, this feedback-coaching resulted in improved manager and employee satisfaction, commitment, intentions to turnover, and at least indirectly, this firm's performance. This feedback-coaching may be a winning combination to help in the competitive battles in today's global economy. 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Markham S. E., Smith J. W., Markham I. S., & Braekkan K. F . ( 2014).

A new approach to analyzing the Achilles' heel of multisource feedback programs: Can we really trust ratings of leaders at the group level of analysis?

The Leadership Quarterly, 25( 6), 1120-1142.

DOI:10.1016/j.leaqua.2014.10.003      URL     [本文引用: 4]

This research addresses the Achilles’ heel of all multi-source leadership feedback programs regardless of whether they use 360°, 270°, or 180° ratings. Namely, should all feedback be universally aggregated by feedback groups and reported to respondents? A sample of raters from the Center for Creative Leadership (N02=0215,500 including subordinates, peers, and others) was grouped to align with each raters’ matching focal subject (J02=021,550). Two scales from CCL’s Benchmarks instrument (Building and Mending Relationships and Career Management) were used to: (1) predict a derailment factor (Problems with Interpersonal Relationships) and (2) determine the operative level of analysis and its aggregation characteristics using Within and Between Analysis (WABA). In many cases, the variables under consideration did not aggregate optimally. Using a technique based upon each group’s coefficient of variation as a measure of internal consensus, between 3% and 25% of groups should not have their averages reported. Alternative approaches are discussed.

Markham S. E., Markham I. S., & Smith J. W . ( 2015).

At the crux of dyadic leadership: Self-other agreement of leaders and direct reports—Analyzing 360-degree feedback

The Leadership Quarterly, 26( 6), 958-977.

DOI:10.1016/j.leaqua.2015.10.001      URL     [本文引用: 3]

The purpose of this research is to investigate the use of dyads instead of whole rating groups for analyzing 360 feedback. A Center for Creative Leadership sample of direct subordinates was matched with their focal leaders (J=4810 dyads). Two CCL Benchmark scales (Building & Mending Relationships and Problems with Interpersonal Relationships) were used to determine if this dyadic pairing produced high self ther agreement (SOA). Using Within and Between Analysis (WABA), results suggest the viability of detecting unitary, whole dyadic effects only under specific boundary conditions. Other conditions produced highly dispersed dyadic results. Thus, dyadic convergence is not a universal phenomenon in these data. Tying the dyadic results back to the original rater group's consistency as reported in Markham, Smith et al. (2014), those rater groups with high internal agreement form clearer dyadic pairings when compared to rater groups that were moderate or low in agreement. Implications and future directions are discussed.

Markham S. E., Markham I. S., & Smith J. W . ( 2017).

A review, analysis, and extension of peer-leader feedback agreement: Contrasting group aggregate agreement vs. self-other agreement using entity analytics and visualization

The Leadership Quarterly, 28( 1), 153-177.

DOI:10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.10.001      URL     [本文引用: 2]

In reviewing peer-leader feedback within Multi-Source Feedback programs, the group aggregate agreement (GAA) method is contrasted with self-other agreement (SOA). Past research (Markham, Smith, et al., 2014) has demonstrated convergence problems with GAA for groups of peer raters. To evaluate dyadic convergence, we used the Benchmarks data to investigate two derailment factors (Building & Mending Relationships and Interpersonal Problems) for 4607 peers describing 1505 focal respondents. For high-agreement dyads, the r total 02=0261020.66** with 88% of the combined variance and covariance based on dyadic averages converging as whole units. Only 50% of all dyads demonstrated this type of high convergence. For low agreement dyads, the matching correlation (r total 02=0261020.56**) was almost exclusively a function of within-dyad divergence with only 4% stemming from between-dyad sources. Research implications for evaluating SOA under these agreement conditions are highlighted. Practitioner applications for using an entity-based visualization of dyads also are prototyped and discussed.

Maylett, T.(2009).

360-degree feedback revisited: The transition from development to appraisal

Compensation & Benefits Review, 41( 5), 52-59.

DOI:10.1177/0886368709337922      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Abstract Successfully using 360-degree feedback for both employee development and performance appraisal requires a clear understanding of objectives and possible outcomes.

McCarthy,A. M., & Garavan, T. N . ( 2007).

Understanding acceptance of multisource feedback for management development

Personnel Review, 36( 6), 903-917.

DOI:10.1108/00483480710822427      URL     [本文引用: 2]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to report a study investigating the predictors of acceptance of multisource feedback (MSF) by managers. Specifically, it investigates the extent to which locus of control, cynicism and perceptions of procedural justice predicted acceptance by feedback recipients.Design/methodology/approach – Quantitative data were analysed from 520 questionnaires completed by managers who participated in a multisource feedback programme as part of a leadership development process.Findings – The study findings reveal that managers' perception of procedural justice was most significant in explaining variance in acceptance of MSF. Cynicism also explained significant variance in acceptance.Practical implications – The findings highlight the importance of attending to procedural justice issues when implementing MSF. They also highlight the need to assess cynicism levels in the organisation.Originality/value – The study combines variables not included in previous studies.

Mero N. P., Guidice R. M., & Brownlee A. L . ( 2007).

Accountability in a performance appraisal context: The effect of audience and form of accounting on rater response and behavior

Journal of Management, 33( 2), 223-252.

DOI:10.1177/0149206306297633      URL     [本文引用: 1]

This study explored how context influences accountability in a performance appraisal context. Results demonstrate that audience characteristics influence rating quality, as raters accountable to higher status or mixed-status audiences provided more accurate ratings, whereas those accountable to a lower status audience provided more inflated ratings. Participant note taking also mediated the relationship between accountability to higher status or mixed-status audiences and rating accuracy. Raters required to account for ratings in person as opposed to in writing were more accurate when accountable to higher status or mixed audiences and provided more positive indicators of behavior when accountable to a lower status audience.

Mishra, V.,& Roch, S. G . ( 2013).

Cultural values and performance appraisal: Assessing the effects of rater self- construal on performance ratings

The Journal of Psychology, 147( 4), 325-344.

DOI:10.1080/00223980.2012.694377      URL     PMID:23885636      [本文引用: 1]

Abstract Much of the prior research investigating the influence of cultural values on performance ratings has focused either on conducting cross-national comparisons among raters or using cultural level individualism/collectivism scales to measure the effects of cultural values on performance ratings. Recent research has shown that there is considerable within country variation in cultural values, i.e. people in one country can be more individualistic or collectivistic in nature. Taking the latter perspective, the present study used Markus and Kitayama's (1991) conceptualization of independent and interdependent self-construals as measures of individual variations in cultural values to investigate within culture variations in performance ratings. Results suggest that rater self-construal has a significant influence on overall performance evaluations; specifically, raters with a highly interdependent self-construal tend to show a preference for interdependent ratees, whereas raters high on independent self-construal do not show a preference for specific type of ratees when making overall performance evaluations. Although rater self-construal significantly influenced overall performance evaluations, no such effects were observed for specific dimension ratings. Implications of these results for performance appraisal research and practice are discussed.

Ng K. Y., Koh C., Ang S., Kennedy J. C., & Chan K.-Y . ( 2011).

Rating leniency and halo in multisource feedback ratings: Testing cultural assumptions of power distance and individualism-collectivism

Journal of Applied Psychology, 96( 5), 1033-1044.

DOI:10.1037/a0023368      URL     PMID:21480684      [本文引用: 2]

This study extends multisource feedback research by assessing the effects of rater source and raters' cultural value orientations on rating bias (leniency and halo). Using a motivational perspective of performance appraisal, the authors posit that subordinate raters followed by peers will exhibit more rating bias than superiors. More important, given that multisource feedback systems were premised on low power distance and individualistic cultural assumptions, the authors expect raters' power distance and individualism-collectivism orientations to moderate the effects of rater source on rating bias. Hierarchical linear modeling on data collected from 1,447 superiors, peers, and subordinates who provided developmental feedback to 172 military officers show that (a) subordinates exhibit the most rating leniency, followed by peers and superiors; (b) subordinates demonstrate more halo than superiors and peers, whereas superiors and peers do not differ; (c) the effects of power distance on leniency and halo are strongest for subordinates than for peers and superiors; (d) the effects of collectivism on leniency were stronger for subordinates and peers than for superiors; effects on halo were stronger for subordinates than superiors, but these effects did not differ for subordinates and peers. The present findings highlight the role of raters' cultural values in multisource feedback ratings.

O’Neill T. A., Goffin R. D., & Gellatly I. R . ( 2012).

The use of random coefficient modeling for understanding and predicting job performance ratings: An application with field data

Organizational Research Methods, 15( 3), 436-462.

DOI:10.1177/1094428112438699      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Pichler, S.(2012).

The social context of performance appraisal and appraisal reactions: A meta-analysis

Human Resource Management, 51( 5), 709-732.

DOI:10.1002/hrm.21499      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Abstract This study reviews and meta-analyzes the literature on the social context of performance appraisal. Results indicate that aspects of rater-ratee relationship quality (i.e., supervisor satisfaction, supervisor support, supervisor trust) are strongly related to ratee reactions to performance appraisals. Rater-ratee relationship quality is more strongly related to appraisal reactions than appraisal participation or performance ratings. Integrating social exchange theory with procedural justice theory, this article tested whether or not the relationship quality–appraisal reactions relationship was due to relationships between relationship quality and instrumental resources for the ratee (i.e., appraisal participation and rating favorability). When controlling for relationships between these resources and appraisal reactions, a direct path between relationship quality and reactions was significant, supporting a relational model of the exchange between appraisal partners. The relationship quality–appraisal reaction relationship was not moderated by performance rating favorability or appraisal participation. In total, these results highlight the importance of relationship quality to employee reactions to performance appraisal—and the importance of ratee reactions as an important resource in the social exchange between appraisal partners. Implications for theory, practice, and future research are discussed. 08 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Pulakos,E. D., & O’Leary, R. S . ( 2011).

Why is performance management broken?

Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 4( 2), 146-164.

DOI:10.1111/j.1754-9434.2011.01315.x      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Abstract Although extensive research and practice have focused on understanding and improving performance management systems in organizations, the formula for effective performance management remains elusive. We propose that a significant part of the problem is that performance management has been reduced to prescribed steps within formal administrative systems that are disconnected from the day-to-day activities that determine performance management effectiveness (e.g., communicating clear work expectations, setting short-term objectives and deadlines, and providing continual guidance). We argue that interventions to improve performance management should cease their exclusive focus on reinventing formal system features. Although well-developed tools and systems can facilitate performance management, these alone do not yield effective performance management. In lieu of making further changes to formal performance management systems, we argue for devoting more attention to improving manager–employee communication and aspects of the manager–employee relationship and propose an approach we believe holds promise for improving performance management processes in organizations.

Randall, R.,& Sharples, D.(2012).

The impact of rater agreeableness and rating context on the evaluation of poor performance

Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 85( 1), 42-59.

DOI:10.1348/2044-8325.002002      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Abstract We tested the effects of rater agreeableness on the rating of others poor performance in performance appraisal (PA). We also examined the interactions between rater agreeableness and two aspects of the rating context: ratee self-ratings and the prospect of future collaboration with the ratee. Participants ( n = 230) were allocated to one of six experimental groups (a 3 2 between-groups design) or a control group ( n = 20). Participants received accurate, low-deviated, or high-deviated self-ratings from the ratee. Half were notified they would collaborate with the ratee in a future task. High rater agreeableness, positive deviations in self-rating, and the prospect of future collaboration were all independent predictors of higher PA ratings. The interactions between rater agreeableness and rating context were very small. We argue that conflict avoidance is an important motivation in the PA process.

Rogers E., Rogers C. W., & Metlay W . ( 2002).

Improving the payoff from 360-degree feedback

Human Resource Planning, 25( 3), 44-54.

URL     [本文引用: 1]

Historically, employees received feedback only from their direct supervisor. With flattened...

Rosen C. C., Kacmar K. M., Harris K. J., Gavin M. B., & Hochwarter W. A . ( 2017).

Workplace politics and performance appraisal: A two-study, multilevel field investigation

Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 24( 1), 20-38.

DOI:10.1177/1548051816661480      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Abstract Drawing from Johns theory of self-serving behavior, we identified workplace politics as a contextual factor that affects the relative costs and benefits associated with supervisor rating behaviors. Our investigation tested these ideas by considering how politics influence the way in which raters combine information when evaluating subordinate performance. Specifically, we examined the three-way interaction of in-role behavior, extra-role behavior, and politics perceptions on overall ratings of performance in a two-study, multilevel investigation. Across two studies, results generally were consistent with the hypothesized three-way interaction, such that the joint effects of extra-role and in-role behavior on performance ratings varied across levels of politics. Implications of these findings and future research directions are discussed.

Russo S. D., Miraglia M., & Borgogni L . ( 2017).

Reducing organizational politics in performance appraisal: The role of coaching leaders for age-diverse employees

Human Resource Management, 56( 5), 769-783.

DOI:10.1002/hrm.21799      URL     [本文引用: 1]

We examined whether a supervisor coaching leadership style predicts the perception of organizational politics in performance appraisal (OPPA) reported by the collaborators. Additionally, we drew on social cognition and motivational lifespan development theories to hypothesize age-related differences in perceived OPPA and its link with the coaching leadership style. Using hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) on a sample of 576 employees and 112 leaders, we found that coaching leaders are perceived as less manipulative in their performance ratings, especially by older employees. This paper includes a discussion of the implications these results have for performance management of an age-diverse workforce.

Semeijn J. H., Van Der Heijden, B. I. J. M.,& Van Der Lee, A.(2014).

Multisource ratings of managerial competencies and their predictive value for managerial and organizational effectiveness

Human Resource Management, 53( 5), 773-794.

DOI:10.1002/hrm.21592      URL     [本文引用: 2]

This study examined the predictive value of multisource ratings of managerial competencies for managerial and organizational effectiveness. Data from 155 subordinates, 59 peers, and 28 supervisors were gathered in order to provide insight into their perceptions on managerial competencies for their managers. With regard to the outcome variable (i.e., effectiveness), both individual-level (subordinates’, peers’, and supervisors’ ratings of managers) and organizational-level (Balanced Scorecard) measures were used. As expected, subordinates, peers, and supervisors have distinct perspectives on the managerial competencies that are relevant for effectiveness. Moreover, the specifi c managerial competencies differ in terms of their predictive validity respectively for managerial and organizational effectiveness. The outcomes of our study suggest that a multisource and multimethod approach is valuable in assessing both managerial competencies and managerial and organizational effectiveness. Several implications for human resource management practices are discussed.

Shipper F., Hoffman R. C., & Rotondo D. M . ( 2007).

Does the 360 feedback process create actionable knowledge equally across cultures?

Academy of Management Learning & Education, 6( 1), 33-50.

DOI:10.5465/AMLE.2007.24401701      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Essential to an organization's capacity for sustainable growth is the ability or its managers to learn better skills that improve performance. Millions of dollars are spent each year on development initiatives that often fail to transfer into performance gains, primarily due to insufficient support given to the learning transfer process. One initiative used by companies to develop managerial skills is the 360 feedback process. This process has been recognized by some for its value because of its inherent ability to reinforce learning and create actionable knowledge. Some companies have gone so far as to assume that the 360 feedback process will apply equally across cultures. Given that different cultures hold different values, the assumption needs to be examined. The question of cultural relevance for the 360 feedback process was examined across five countries in this study. The results provide support for the overall effectiveness of the 360 process across the combined sample. Comparisons among the five countries, however, revealed important differences. The results were examined based on Hofstede's four work-related values. The 360 feedback process was found to be most effective in cultures with low power distance and individualistic values. The implications for both practice and research are discussed.

Smither,J. W., & Walker, A. G . ( 2004).

Are the characteristics of narrative comments related to improvement in multirater feedback ratings over time?

Journal of Applied Psychology, 89( 3), 575-581.

DOI:10.1037/0021-9010.89.3.575      URL     PMID:15161414      [本文引用: 1]

Researchers have paid almost no attention to the narrative comments that typically accompany multirater feedback reports despite the fact that both anecdotal and empirical evidence suggest that feedback recipients devote considerable attention to such comments. The authors examined improvement in upward feedback ratings over a 1-year period for 176 managers as a function of (a) the number of narrative comments each manager received, (b) whether those comments were favorable (vs. unfavorable), and (c) whether the comments were behavior/task focused (vs. trait focused). The authors found that managers who received a small number of unfavorable, behavior/task-focused comments improved more than did other managers, whereas managers who received a large number of unfavorable, behavior/task-focused comments declined more than did other managers.

Smither,J. W, London, M., & Reilly, R. R . ( 2005).

Does performance improve following multisource feedback? A theoretical model, meta-analysis, and review of empirical findings

Personnel Psychology, 58( 1), 33-66.

DOI:10.1111/peps.2005.58.issue-1      URL     [本文引用: 2]

We review evidence showing that multisource feedback ratings are re-lated to other measures of leadership effectiveness and that different rater sources conceptualize performance in a similar manner. We then describe a meta-analysis of 24 longitudinal studies showing that improvement in direct report, peer, and supervisor ratings over time is generally small. We present a theoretical framework and review empirical evidence suggest-ing performance improvement should be more likely for some feedback recipients than others. Specifically, improvement is most likely to occur when feedback indicates that change is necessary, recipients have a posi-tive feedback orientation, perceive a need to change their behavior, react positively to the feedback, believe change is feasible, set appropriate goals to regulate their behavior, and take actions that lead to skill and performance improvement. It has been nearly 10 years since London and Smither (1995) evalu-ated the state of multisource feedback practice and offered theory-based propositions for understanding how people process and use the feedback. This article assesses progress in the field, especially focusing on the ex-tent to which feedback recipients improve their performance after receiv-ing multisource feedback. We argue that practitioners should not expect large, widespread performance improvement after employees receive mul-tisource feedback. Instead, we present a theoretical model that suggests some feedback recipients should be more likely to improve than others. First, we review empirical evidence concerning the validity of multisource feedback. This is important because it would make little sense to focus The authors thank Murray Barrick (Associate Editor), three anonymous reviewers, and Pete Dominick for their helpful comments concerning an earlier draft of this paper. Correspondence and requests for reprints should be addressed to James W. Smither, La

Smither J. W., Brett J. F., & Atwater L. E . ( 2008).

What do leaders recall about their multisource feedback?

Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 14( 3), 202-218.

DOI:10.1177/1071791907308463      URL     [本文引用: 1]

We examined 145 leaders' recall of their multisource feedback (MSF) 9 months after receiving...

Spence,J. R., & Keeping, L. M . ( 2010).

The impact of non-performance information on ratings of job performance: A policy-capturing approach

Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31( 4), 587-608.

DOI:10.1002/job.648      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Researchers have suggested that rater motives and the organizational context should be considered as sources of performance appraisal inaccuracies. A review of the performance appraisal literature revealed three primary non-performance factors that managers consider when rating employee performance: (a) Potential negative consequences of ratings, (b) organizational norms, and (c) the opportunity to advance self-interests. Using a policy-capturing methodology, the current study investigated if these three non-performance factors, as well as individual rater differences (e.g., conscientiousness, agreeableness, and performance appraisal experience), influence performance ratings. A sample of 303 experienced managers rated the performance of a fictitious employee, featured in a series of hypothetical scenarios, in which the above information was manipulated. Using hierarchical linear modeling, the results revealed that each of the three non-performance related considerations accounted for variance incremental to objective employee performance. Managers' performance appraisal experience also predicted ratings, such that more experience was associated with lower ratings. These results provide support for the view that non-performance factors can be a substantive component of performance ratings. Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Sumelius J., Björkman I., Ehrnrooth M., Mäkelä K., & Smale A . ( 2014).

What determines employee perceptions of HRM process features? The case of performance appraisal in MNC subsidiaries

Human Resource Management, 53( 4), 569-592.

DOI:10.1002/hrm.21604      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Abstract Against the background of Bowen and Ostroff's (2004) human resource management (HRM) process theorization, this study explores influences on individual employee perceptions of the visibility, validity, and procedural and distributive justice of performance appraisal in subsidiaries of multinational corporations, and at what levels these influences reside. The study adopts an embedded, multiple-case design with interview data from 33 managers and professionals in six subsidiaries of three corporations. The findings show that perceptions of the performance appraisal process are driven by a number of influences pertaining to the unit, relationship, and individual levels. Further, the study highlights differences and similarities of influences across four performance appraisal process features, and identifies overlaps and inter-linkages between the process features suggested by Bowen and Ostroff (2004). For practitioners, the value of our study lies in the identification of steps that can be taken to increase the likelihood that HRM practices are perceived positively and as intended by the organization. 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Vecchio,P. R., &Anderson, R. J . ( 2009).

Agreement in self-other ratings of leader effectiveness: The role of demographics and personality

International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 17( 2), 165-179.

DOI:10.1111/j.1468-2389.2009.00460.x      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Personality and demographic attributes for a set of 1221 focal managers were examined as correlates of leadership effectiveness evaluations that were obtained via a 360 feedback program. Polynomial regression was used to study the congruence of self-ratings provided by focal managers relative to the different evaluative perspectives (i.e., immediate superior, peer, and subordinate). Analyses supported the prediction that focal manager's sex and age would be associated with the ratings provided by themselves and others. Plus, the tendency to overestimate one's own leader effectiveness relative to evaluations provided by others was found to be greater for males and older managers. Focal managers who expressed greater social sensitivity were evaluated more favorably by subordinates and peers, although not by superiors. Ratings of leader effectiveness from immediate superiors were, instead, more readily predicted by judgments of the performance of the focal manager's organizational unit relative to comparable units. Results of polynomial regression analysis, however, indicated that self ther agreement was related to the focal's sex, social sensitivity, and social dominance. Implications for understanding obstacles to openness to change are discussed.

Verbos,A. K., Miller, J. S, & Goswami, A.(2014).

Employee social cognition and performance evaluation process reactions

Personnel Review, 43( 4), 515-535.

DOI:10.1108/PR-01-2011-0011      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Abstract Purpose ‐ The paper uses social cognitive theory to explore reactions to performance evaluation processes as situated cognitions by examining the relationship between key elements of employees' schemas about an organizational environment, preparation for evaluation, and these reactions. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach ‐ Survey of 260 employees of eight organizations in a Midwestern US city. Findings ‐ Job resource adequacy, communication adequacy, coworker relationships, and preparation time are significantly and positively associated with employee reactions to performance evaluation processes. Preparation time moderates the association between organizational context and employee reactions. Research limitations/implications ‐ A social cognitive perspective on performance evaluation broadens the scope of extant research. This study is limited by cross-sectional design but opens the door to future experimental and longitudinal research. Practical implications ‐ Performance evaluation processes are situated in an organizational context. Organizational interventions to improve perceptions of this key process could focus on better communication and encouraging preparation, especially if job resources are less adequate. Originality/value ‐ This research contributes to the performance evaluation literature by applying social cognitive theory to performance evaluation reactions as situated cognitions, calling attention to the broader organizational context in which these processes occur.

Woehr D. J., Sheehan M. K., & Bennett J. W . ( 2005).

Assessing measurement equivalence across rating sources: A Multitrait-Multirater approach

Journal of Applied Psychology, 90( 3), 592-600.

DOI:10.1037/0021-9010.90.3.592      URL     PMID:15910153      [本文引用: 1]

Research examining the structure of multisource performance ratings has demonstrated that ratings are a direct function of both who is doing the rating (rating source) as well as what is being rated (performance dimension). A separate line of research has focused on the extent to which performance ratings are equivalent across sources. To date no research has examined the measurement equivalence of multisource ratings within the context of both dimension and rating source direct effects on ratings. We examine the impact of both performance dimension and rating source as well as the degree of measurement equivalence across sources. Results indicate that (a) the impact of the underlying performance dimension is the same across rating sources, (b) the impact of rating source is substantial and only slightly smaller than the impact of the underlying performance dimension, and (c) the impact of rating source differs substantially depending on the source.

Wong,K. F. E., & Kwong, J. Y. Y . ( 2007).

Effects of rater goals on rating patterns: Evidence from an experimental field study

Journal of Applied Psychology, 92( 2), 577-585.

DOI:10.1037/0021-9010.92.2.577      URL     PMID:17371102      [本文引用: 1]

The goal-based perspective of performance appraisals suggests that raters who pursue different goals give different performance ratings. Yet previous studies have not provided strong empirical evidence that there are different impacts of different goals on mean rating and discriminability, nor have they provided evidence of a goal-rating causality. The authors extend the literature by manipulating rater goals in the context of peer evaluations of graded group projects with a sample of 104 undergraduate students. They find that (a) pursuing a harmony goal increased mean rating and decreased discriminability, and (b) pursuing a fairness goal increased mean rating and decreased discriminability when the group projects had not ended and increased mean rating but did not change discriminability when the group projects had ended.

Wood D., Harms P., & Vazire S . ( 2010).

Perceiver effects as projective tests: What your perceptions of others say about you

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99( 1), 174-190.

DOI:10.1037/a0019390      URL     PMID:20565194      [本文引用: 1]

In three studies, we document various properties of perceiver effects r how an individual generally tends to describe other people in a population. First, we document that perceiver effects have consistent relationships with dispositional characteristics of the perceiver, ranging from self-reported personality traits and academic performance to well-being and measures of personality disorders, to how liked the person is by peers. Second, we document that the covariation in perceiver effects among trait dimensions can be adequately captured by a single factor consisting of how positively others are seen across a wide range of traits (e.g., how nice, interesting, trustworthy, happy, and stable others are generally seen). Third, we estimate the one-year stability of perceiver effects and show that individual differences in the typical perception of others have a level of stability comparable to that of personality traits. The results provide compelling evidence that how individuals generally perceive others is a stable individual difference that reveals much about the perceiver own personality.

Xie J. L., Chen Z. G., & Roy J. P . ( 2006).

Cultural and personality determinants of leniency in self-rating among Chinese people

Management & Organization Review, 2( 2), 181-207.

DOI:10.1111/j.1740-8784.2006.00043.x      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Abstract abstract This study examines how cultural values (i.e., individualism and collectivism) and personality (i.e., self-perceived superiority and exhibitionism) jointly affect self-rating among Chinese respondents from mainland China ( N =161), Hong Kong ( N =350), and Taiwan ( N =398). The results demonstrated that respondents with a more individualistic cultural orientation exhibit greater leniency in self-rating than those with a more collectivistic cultural orientation. Furthermore, self-perceived superiority and exhibitionism are related to high self-ratings among individuals who expressed low individualism values, but not among individuals who expressed high individualism or collectivism values. The results suggest that self-rating research needs to take both the individual cultural values and personality traits into account.

Yamazaki, Y.,& Yoon, J.(2016).

A cross-national study of fairness in Asia: How perceptions of a lack-of-group bias and transparency in the performance evaluation system relate to job satisfaction

Human Resource Management, 55( 6), 1059-1077.

DOI:10.1002/hrm.21707      URL     [本文引用: 1]

Abstract This study explored how managers fairness perceptions of performance evaluation systems differ across countries and relate to their job satisfaction. Lack-of-group bias and transparency were the constructs used to assess fairness perceptions. The data sample consisted of 903 Asian managers from the subsidiaries of a leading multinational corporation (MNC) strategically expanding its retail markets in Japan, China, Hong Kong, Malaysia, and Thailand. Results showed that the fairness perceptions of lack-of-group bias and transparency concerning the common performance evaluation system varied within these Asian countries. Furthermore, those fairness perceptions were significantly related to job satisfaction among Asian managers overall, as well as in each of the five geographical subgroups with the exception of Hong Kong, where the perception of a lack-of-group bias was only marginally related to job satisfaction. These findings offer theoretical implications regarding organizational justice, cross-national management, and performance evaluation, as well as practical implications for leveraging organizational justice perceptions of performance evaluation systems for the effectiveness of MNCs. 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

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