The relationship between perceived overqualification and individual performance and mediating mechanisms: A meta-analytic review and examination of emotional and cognitive processing systems and cultural contexts

doi:10.3724/SP.J.1041.2021.00527

Abstract

Abstract:

In recent years, overqualification, a special phenomenon of person-environment misfit, has attracted a lot of scholars’ attention, but the conclusions from related studies remain controversial. A meta-analysis of 321 articles including 383 independent studies, 945 effect sizes and 575061 study samples was conducted: (1) The direct effect test showed that there was a significant positive correlation between perceived overqualification (POQ) and negative emotions (i.e., anger, boredom). There was no significant correlation between POQ and positive self-concepts (i.e., self-esteem, self-efficacy), but a significant positive correlation exists between POQ and negative extra-role behaviors (i.e., counterproductive work behavior, turnover). There was no significant correlation between positive extra-role behaviors (i.e., creativity, organizational citizenship behavior, etc.) and task performance. (2) The meta-analysis of structural equation modeling (SEM) shows that POQ can augment negative emotions, and further promote negative extra-role behaviors while decreasing positive extra-role behaviors and task performance. Meanwhile, POQ can increase positive self-concepts, and can furthermore enhance positive extra-role behaviors and task performance while decreasing negative extra-role behaviors; (3) Collectivism played a moderating role in the process of POQ affecting individual performance through the emotional-cognitive processing system. In the high collectivistic cultural context, POQ had a lower level of negative effect on negative emotions and had a positive effect on positive self-concepts; in the low collectivistic cultural context, POQ had a stronger negative effect on negative emotions, and a negative effect on positive self-concepts. (4) The relationship between POQ and person-job fit (P-J fit) was stronger than that between POQ and person-organization fit (P-O fit). Compare with P-J fit and P-O fit, POQ had the strongest effect on strain and turnover. The findings of this study provide insights into understanding the complex mechanisms and boundary conditions of POQ on individual performance, and provide evidence for how to manage overqualified employees.

Key words: perceived overqualification, negative emotions, positive self-concepts, person-organization fit, person-job fit, extra-role behavior

YANG Weiwen, LI Chaoping. (2021). The relationship between perceived overqualification and individual performance and mediating mechanisms: A meta-analytic review and examination of emotional and cognitive processing systems and cultural contexts. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 53(5), 527-554.

Figures/Tables 10

References 153

[1]	Adams J.S. (1963). Towards an understanding of inequity. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(5),422-436.
[2]	Aryee, S.,& Luk, V. (1996). Work and non-work influences on the career satisfaction of dual-earner couples. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 49(1), 38-52.
[3]	Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215.
[4]	Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs:Prentice Hall.
[5]	Bandura, A. (1991). Social cognitive theory of self-regulation. Theories of Cognitive Self-Regulation, 50(2), 248-287.
[6]	Barbalet, J.M. (1999). Boredom and social meaning. British Journal of Sociology, 50(4), 631-646.
[7]	Barclay, L. J., Skarlicki, D. P., & Pugh, S. D. (2005). Exploring the role of emotions in injustice perceptions and retaliation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(4), 629-643.
[8]	Becker, B.J. (2009). Model-based meta-analysis. In H. Cooper, L. V. Hedges, & J. C. Valentine (Eds.), The handbook of research synthesis and meta-analysis (2nd ed., pp. 377-395). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
[9]	Benedict, J. N., Gayatridevi, S.,& Velayudhan, A. (2009). Perceived overqualification, job satisfaction, somatization and job stress of MNC executives. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, 35, 283-289.
[10]	Bowling, N.A. (2011). A meta-analysis of the predictors and consequences of organization-based self-esteem. Journal of Occupational & Organizational Psychology, 83(3),601-626.
[11]	Breidenthal, A. P., Liu, D., Bai, Y., & Mao, Y. (2020). The dark side of creativity: Coworker envy and ostracism as a response to employee creativity. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 161, 242-254.
[12]	Brewer, M.B.,& Chen, Y.R. (2007). Where (who) are collectives in collectivism? Toward conceptual clarification of individualism and collectivism. Psychological Review, 114(1), 133-151. URL pmid: 17227184
[13]	Cable, D.M.,& DeRue, D.S. (2002). The convergent and discriminant validity of subjective fit perceptions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(5), 875-884.
[14]	Cai, H., Yang, Z., Luo, Y., Gu, R., & Liu, Y. (2017). Self-esteem and brain: A social neuroscience approach. Advances in Psychological Science, 25, 788-798.
[15]	Carrell, M.R., & Dittrich, J.E. (1978). Equity theory: The recent literature, methodological considerations, and new directions. Academy of Management Review, 3, 202-210.
[16]	Carver, C. S.,& Scheier, M. F.(1998). On the self-regulation of behaviour. New York: Cambridge University Press.
[17]	Chen, C.C. (1995). New trends in rewards allocation preferences: A Sino-U.S comparison. Academy of Management Journal, 38(2), 408-428.
[18]	Chen, H., Huang, Y.,& Zang, W. (2018). Research on the relationship between overqualification on organizational citizenship behavior: Mediating effect based on role breadth self-efficacy. Journal of Anhui Normal University (Natural Science Edition), 41(6), 511-518 + 551.
[19]	Chen, Y., Zou, Z., & Pan, J.(2017). Effects of overqualification on employees’ organizational citizenship behavior: From the perspective of emotion. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 49(1), 72-82.
[20]	Cheng, B., Zhou, X., Guo, G., & Yang, K. (2020). Perceived overqualification and cyberloafing: A moderated-mediation model based on equity theory. Journal of Business Ethics. 164, 565-577.
[21]	Cheng, S.(2011). Workplace ostracism and depression: The mediating role of self-concept clarity. China Journal of Health Psychology, 4, 423-425.
[22]	Cheung, M. W. L. (2015). MetaSEM: An R package for meta-analysis using structural equation modeling. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1521. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01521 URL pmid: 25601849
[23]	Clugston, M., Howell, J. P., & Dorfman, P. W. (2000). Does cultural socialization predict multiple bases and foci of commitment? Journal of Management, 26(1), 5-30.
[24]	Colquitt, J. A., Scott, B. A., Judge, T. A.,& Shaw, J. C. (2006). Justice and personality: Using integrative theories to derive moderators of justice effects. Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes, 100(1), 110-127.
[25]	Connell, A.(2010). The myth of the overqualified worker. Harvard Business Review, 88(12), 1.
[26]	Crocker, J., Luhtanen, R., Blaine, B.,& Broadnax, S. (1994). Collective self-esteem and psychological well-being among white, black, and Asian college students. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20(5), 503-513.
[27]	Crosby, F. (1976). A model of egoistical relative deprivation. Psychological Review, 83(2), 85-113.
[28]	Crosby, F., & Gonzalez-IntalA., M. (1984). Relative deprivation and equity theories: Felt injustice and the undeserved benefits of others. In R. Folger (Ed.), The Sense of Injustice: Social Psychological Perspectives (pp. 141-166). Boston, MA: Springer US.
[29]	Cummings, A.,& Oldham, G. R. (1997). Enhancing creativity: Managing work contexts for the high potential employee. California Management Review, 40(1), 22-38.
[30]	Dahlke, J.A.,& Wiernik, B.M. (2018). Psychmeta:Psychometric Meta-Analysis Toolkit (Version 0.1.0). Retrieved from
[31]	Darden, D.K. (1999). Boredom: A socially disvalued emotion. Sociological Spectrum, 19(1), 13-37.
[32]	Deng, H., Guan, Y., Wu, C.-H., Erdogan, B., Bauer, T.,& Yao, X. (2018). A relational model of perceived overqualification: The moderating role of interpersonal influence on social acceptance. Journal of Management, 44(8), 3288-3310.
[33]	Du, J.,& Wang, D. (2009). Person-environment fit and creativity: The moderating role of collectivism. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 41(10), 980-988.
[34]	Eastwood, J. D., Frischen, A., Fenske, M. J., & Smilek, D. (2012). The unengaged mind: Defining boredom in terms of attention. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(5), 482-495.
[35]	Edwards, J.(1991). Person-job fit: A conceptual integration, literature review and methodological critique. International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 6,283-357.
[36]	Egger, M., & Smith, G.D. (1997). Meta-Analysis: Potentials and promise. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.), 315, 1371-1374.
[37]	Elder, G. J.(1974). Children of the great depression: Social change in life experience. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
[38]	Erdogan, B., & Bauer, T.N. (2009). Perceived overqualification and its outcomes: The moderating role of empowerment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(2), 557-565.
[39]	Erdogan, B., Bauer, T. N., Maria Peiro, J.,& Truxillo, D. M. (2011). Overqualified employees: Making the best of a potentially bad situation for individuals and organizations. Industrial and Organizational Psychology-Perspectives on Science and Practice, 4(2), 215-232.
[40]	Farrell, D.(1983). Exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect as responses to job dissatisfaction: A multidimensional scaling study. Academy of Management Journal, 26(4), 596-607.
[41]	Field, A.P., & Gillett, R. (2010). How to do a meta-analysis. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 63(3),665-694.
[42]	Fine, S.,& Nevo, B.(2008). Too smart for their own good? A study of perceived cognitive overqualification in the workforce. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19(2), 346-355.
[43]	Fisher, C.D. (1993). Boredom at work: A neglected concept. Human Relations, 46(3), 395-417.
[44]	Fisher, R.A. (1921). On the probable error of a coefficient of correlation deduced from a small sample. Metron, 1,3-32.
[45]	Friedland, D.S.,& Price, R. H. (2003). Underemployment: Consequences for the health and well-being of workers. American Journal of Community Psychology, 32,33-45. doi: 10.1023/a:1025638705649 URL pmid: 14570433
[46]	Frohman, A.. (1997). Igniting organizational change from below: The power of personal initiative. Organizational Dynamics, 25(3), 39-53.
[47]	Haase, J., Hoff, E. V., Hanel, P. H. P.,& Innes-Ker, A. (2018). A meta-analysis of the relation between creative self-efficacy and different creativity measurements. Creativity Research Journal, 30(1), 1-16.
[48]	Harari, M. B., Manapragada, A., & Viswesvaran, C. (2017). Who thinks they’re a big fish in a small pond and why does it matter? A meta-analysis of perceived overqualification. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 102, 28-47.
[49]	Harari, M. B., Reaves, A. C.,& Viswesvaran, C. (2016). Creative and innovative performance: A meta-analysis of relationships with task, citizenship, and counterproductive job performance dimensions. European Journal of Work & Organizational Psychology, 25(4), 495-511.
[50]	Harju, L.K.,& Hakanen, J. J. (2016). An employee who was not there: A study of job boredom in white-collar work. Personnel Review, 45(2), 374-391.
[51]	Hofstede, G(1980). Culture’s consequences, international differences in work-related values. London, England:Sage.
[52]	Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind (intercultural cooperation and its importance for survival). USA New York: Mc Graw Hill.
[53]	Hu, J., Erdogan, B., Bauer, T. N., Jiang, K., Liu, S., & Li, Y. (2015). There are lots of big fish in this pond: The role of peer overqualification on task significance, perceived fit, and performance for overqualified employees. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100(4), 1228-1238.
[54]	Huang, Z., Jing, Y., Yu, F., Gu, R., Zhou, X., Zhang, J.,& Cai, H. (2018). Increasing individualism and decreasing collectivism? Cultural and psychological change around the globe. Advances in Psychological Science, 26(11), 2068-2080.
[55]	Hui, C.H. (1988). Measurement of individualism-collectivism. Journal of Research in Personality, 22(1), 17-36.
[56]	Hunter, J.E., & Schmidt, F.L. (2004). Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
[57]	Hunter, J. E., Schmidt, F. L., & Le, H. (2006). Implications of direct and indirect range restriction for meta-analysis methods and findings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(3), 594-612.
[58]	Jackson, C. L., Colquitt, J. A., Wesson, M. J., & Zapata-Phelan, C. P. (2006). Psychological collectivism: A measurement validation and linkage to group member performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(4), 884-899.
[59]	Jahoda, M.(1981). Work, employment, and unemployment: Values, theories, and approaches in social research. American Psychologist, 36(2), 184-191.
[60]	Jasso, G. (1993). Choice and emotion in comparison theory. Rationality & Society, 5(2), 231-274.
[61]	Ji, L., Tang, G., Wang, X., Yan, M., & Liu, Z. (2012). Collectivistic-HRM, firm strategy and firm performance: An empirical test. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 23(1), 190-203.
[62]	Johannes, W.& Andrea, L.H. (2017). A meta-analysis on antecedents and outcomes of detachment from work. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 2072. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.02072 URL pmid: 28133454
[63]	Johnson, E.H. (1990). The deadly emotions: The role of anger, hostility, and aggression in health and emotional well-being. (pp. viii, 223). New York, NY, England: Praeger Publishers.
[64]	Johnson, G.J., & Johnson, W. R. (1995). Subjective underemployment and job satisfaction. International Review of Modern Sociology, 25(1), 73-84.
[65]	Johnson, G.J., & Johnson, W. R. (1996). Perceived overqualification and psychological well-being. The Journal of Social Psychology, 136(4), 435-445.
[66]	Johnson, G.J.,& Johnson, W. R. (1997). Perceived overqualification, emotional support, and health. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 27(21), 1906-1918.
[67]	Johnson, G.J.,& Johnson, W.R. (2000). Perceived overqualification, positive and negative affectivity, and satisfaction with work. Journal of Social Behavior & Personality, 15(2), 167-184.
[68]	Judge, T.A., & Bono, J.E. (2001). Relationship of core self-evaluations traits-Self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability-With job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(1), 80-92.
[69]	Judge, T. A., Erez, A.,& Bono, J. E. (1998). The power of being positive: The relation between positive self-concept and job performance. Human Performance, 11(2-3), 167-187.
[70]	Kernis, M.H. (2003). Toward a conceptualization of optimal self-esteem. Psychological Inquiry, 14(1), 1-26.
[71]	Khan, L.J.,& Morrow, P. C. (1991). Objective and subjective underemployment relationships to job satisfaction. Journal of Business Research, 22(3), 211-218.
[72]	Kim, J., Park, J., Sohn, Y. W., & Lim, J. I. (2019). Perceived overqualification, boredom, and extra-role behaviors: Testing a moderated mediation model. Journal of Career Development, 089484531985387.
[73]	Kim, U., Triandis, H., Kagitcibasi, C., Choi, S., & Yoon, G. (1994). Individualism and collectivism. Sage: Thousand Oaks,CA.
[74]	Kristof, A.L. (1996). Person-organization fit: An integrative review of its conceptualizations, measurement, and implications. Personnel Psychology, 49(1), 1-49.
[75]	Kristof-Brown, A., Zimmerman, R.,& Johnson, E. C. (2005). Consequences of individuals’ fit at work: A meta-analysis of person-job, person-organization, person-group, and person-supervisor fit. Personnel Psychology, 58(2), 281-342.
[76]	Latham, G.P.,& Locke, E. A. (1991). Self-regulation through goal- setting. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 212-247.
[77]	Lauver, K.J., & Kristof-Brown, A. (2001). Distinguishing between employees’ perceptions of person-job and person-organization fit. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 59(3), 454-470.
[78]	Le, H., Schmidt, F., Harter, J.,& Lauver, K. J. (2010). The problem of empirical redundancy of constructs in organizational research: An empirical investigation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 112(2), 112-125.
[79]	Leavitt, K., Mitchell, T. R.,& Peterson, J. (2010). Theory pruning: Strategies to reduce our dense theoretical landscape. Organizational Research Methods, 12(4), 644-667.
[80]	Li, R.,& Tian, X. (2014). Supervisor authoritarian leadership and subordinate proactive behavior: Test of a mediated-moderation model. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 46(11), 1719-1733.
[81]	Li, Y.,& Xu, J.(2014). How collective climate and collectivistic orientation predict occupational well-being: The mediating role of organizational identification. Chinese Journal of Management, 11, 198-205.
[82]	Lin, B., Law, K. S.,& Zhou, J. (2017). Why is underemployment related to creativity and OCB? A task crafting explanation of the curvilinear moderated relations. Academy of Management Journal, 60(1), 156-177.
[83]	Liu, D., Jiang, K., Shalley, C. E., Keem, S.,& Zhou, J. (2016). Motivational mechanisms of employee creativity: A meta-analytic examination and theoretical extension of the creativity literature. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 137, 236-263.
[84]	Liu, S.,& Li, Y. (2014). A Longitudinal study on the impact mechanism of employees’ boundary spanning behavior: Roles of centrality and collectivism. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 46(6), 852-863.
[85]	Liu, S., Luksyte, A., Zhou, L., Shi, J.,& Wang, M. (2015). Overqualification and counterproductive work behaviors: Examining a moderated mediation model. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 36(2), 250-271.
[86]	Liu, S.,& Wang, M. (2012). Perceived overqualification: A review and recommendations for research and practice. Research in Occupational Stress & Well Being, 10, 1-42.
[87]	Liu, X., Liu, J., Xu, J., & Wu, R. (2015). The Effect of Workplace Ostracism on Proactive Behavior: The Self-Verification Theory Perspective. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 47(6), 826-836.
[88]	Loukidou, L., Loan-Clarke, J., & Daniels, K. (2010). Boredom in the workplace: More than monotonous tasks. International Journal of Management Reviews, 11(4), 381-405.
[89]	Luksyte, A., Bauer, T. N., Debus, M. E., Erdogan, B., & Wu, C. H. (2020). Perceived overqualification and collectivism orientation: Implications for work and nonwork outcomes. Journal of Management. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206320948602. URL pmid: 21660254
[90]	Luksyte, A., & Spitzmueller, C. (2016). When are overqualified employees creative? It depends on contextual factors. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 37(5), 635-653.
[91]	Luksyte, A., Spitzmueller, C., & Maynard, D. C. (2011). Why do overqualified incumbents deviate? Examining multiple mediators. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 16(3), 279-296.
[92]	Ma, C., Lin, X., Chen, G. Z. X., & Wei, W. (2020). Linking perceived overqualification with task performance and proactivity? An examination from self-concept-based perspective. Journal of Business Research, 118, 199-209.
[93]	Mann, S., & Cadman, R. (2014). Does being bored make us more creative? Creativity Research Journal, 26(2), 165-173.
[94]	Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98(2), 224-253.
[95]	Maynard, D. C. (1998). Underemployment in the selection process: Managerial perceptions and policies. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Bowling Green State University, US.
[96]	Maynard, D. C., & Parfyonova, N. M. (2013). Perceived overqualification and withdrawal behaviours: Examining the roles of job attitudes and work values. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 86(3), 435-455.
[97]	Maynard, D. C., Joseph, T. A.,& Maynard, A. M. (2006). Underemployment, job attitudes, and turnover intentions. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27(4), 509-536.
[98]	Michaels, C. E., & Spector, P. E. (1982). Causes of employee turnover: A test of the Mobley, Griffeth, Hand, and Meglino model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 67(1), 53-59.
[99]	Muchinsky, P. M., & Monahan, C. J. (1987). What is person-environment congruence? Supplementary versus complementary models of fit. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 31(3), 268-277.
[100]	Navarro, M. L. A., Mas, M. B.,& Jiménez, A. M. L. (2010). Working conditions, burnout and stress symptoms in university professors: Validating a structural model of the mediating effect of perceived personal competence. Spanish Journal of Psychology, 13(1), 284-296.
[101]	Nezlek, J. B., Sorrentino, R. M., Yasunaga, S., Otsubo, Y., Allen, M., Kouhara, S., & Shuper, P. A. (2008). Cross-cultural differences in reactions to daily events as indicators of cross-cultural differences in self-construction and affect. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 39(6), 685-702.
[102]	Ng, T. W.,& Lucianetti, L. (2016). Within-individual increases in innovative behavior and creative, persuasion, and change self-efficacy over time: A social-cognitive theory perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 101(1), 14-34.
[103]	Oh, I., Guay, R. P., Kim, K., Harold, C. M., Lee, J., Heo, C., & Shin, K. (2014). Fit happens globally: A meta‐analytic comparison of the relationships of person-environment fit dimensions with work attitudes and performance across East Asia, Europe, and North America. Personnel Psychology, 67(1), 99-152.
[104]	Oyserman, D. (2017). Culture three ways: Culture and subcultures within countries. Annual Review of Psychology, 68, 435-463. doi: 10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033617 URL pmid: 27687120
[105]	Oyserman, D., Coon, H., M., & Kemmelmeier, M. (2002). Rethinking individualism and collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical assumptions and meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 128(1), 3-72. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.539 URL pmid: 12081081
[106]	Parkes, L. P., Schneider, S. K., & Bochner, S. (1999). Individualism-collectivism and self-concept: Social or contextual? Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 2(3), 367-383.
[107]	Perrewé, P. L., & Zellars, K. L. (1999). An examination of attributions and emotions in the transactional approach to the organizational stress process. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20(5), 739-752.
[108]	Pierce, J. L., & Gardner, D. G. (2004). Self-esteem within the work and organizational context: A review of the organization-based self-esteem literature. Journal of Management, 30(5), 591-622.
[109]	Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879-891.
[110]	Reijseger, G., Schaufeli, W. B., Peeters, M. C., Taris, T. W., van Beek, I., & Ouweneel, E. (2013). Watching the paint dry at work: Psychometric examination of the Dutch Boredom Scale. Anxiety Stress Coping, 26(5), 508-525. doi: 10.1080/10615806.2012.720676 URL pmid: 22998116
[111]	Roh, Y. H., Chang, J. Y., Kim, M. U., & Nam, S. K. (2014). The effects of income and skill utilization on the underemployed’s self-esteem, mental health, and life satisfaction. Journal of Employment Counseling, 51(3), 125-141.
[112]	Rosenthal, R.(1979). The file drawer problem and tolerance for null results. Psychological Bulletin, 86(3), 638-641.
[113]	Roth, P. L., Le, H., Oh, I. S., van Iddekinge, C. H., & Bobko, P. (2018). Using beta coefficients to impute missing correlations in meta-analysis research: Reasons for caution. Journal of Applied Psychology, 103(6), 644-658.
[114]	Rothlin, P.,& Werder, P. R. (2008). Boreout! Overcoming workplace demotivation. London: Kogan Page.
[115]	Rothstein, H. R., Sutton, A. J., & Borenstein, M. (2005). Publication bias in meta-analysis. Chichester: Wiley.
[116]	Russell, Z. A., Ferris, G. R., Thompson, K. W., & Sikora, D. M. (2016). Overqualified human resources, career development experiences, and work outcomes: Leveraging an underutilized resource with political skill. Human Resource Management Review, 26(2), 125-135.
[117]	Sánchez-Cardona, I., Vera, M., Martínez-Lugo, M., Rodríguez- Montalbán, R., & Marrero-Centeno, J. (2019). When the job does not fit: The moderating role of job crafting and meaningful work in the relation between employees’ perceived overqualification and job boredom. Journal of Career Assessment, 28(2), 257-276.
[118]	Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (2015). Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings (3rd ed.) (Vol. 29). Newbury Park: SAGE.
[119]	Schneider, B., Goldstiein, H. W., & Smith, D. B. (1995). The ASA framework: An update. Personnel Psychology, 48(4), 747-773.
[120]	Schweizer, T. S. (2006). The psychology of novelty-seeking, creativity and innovation: Neurocognitive aspects within a work-psychological perspective. Creativity & Innovation Management, 15(2), 164-172.
[121]	Scott, S. G., & Bruce, R. A. (1994). Determinants of innovative behavior: A path model of individual innovation in the workplace. Academy of Management Journal, 37(3), 580-607.
[122]	Smith, H. J., Pettigrew, T. F., Pippin, G. M., & Bialosiewicz, S. (2012). Relative deprivation: A theoretical and meta-analytic review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 16(3), 203-232. doi: 10.1177/1088868311430825 URL pmid: 22194251
[123]	Spector, P. E., & Fox, S. (2002). An emotion-centered model of voluntary work behavior: Some parallels between counterproductive work behavior and organizational citizenship behavior. Human Resource Management Review, 12(2), 269-292.
[124]	Spector, P. E., & Fox, S. (2010). Counterproductive work behavior and organisational citizenship behavior: Are they opposite forms of active behavior? Applied Psychology: An International Review, 59(1), 21-39.
[125]	Spielberger, C. D. (1988). STAXI-2: State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2. Professional manual.
[126]	Stouffer, S. A. (1949). The American soldier: Adjustment during army life. Journal of the American Medical Association, 140(14), 1189.
[127]	Sun, X., Yan, M., & Chu, X. (2014). Passive mood and work behavior: The cross-level mediating effect of zhong-yong thinking style. cta Psychologica Sinica, 46(11), 1704-1718.
[128]	Sverke, M., Hellgren, J., & Naswall, K. (2002). No security: A meta-analysis and review of job insecurity and its consequences. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 7(3), 242-264. URL pmid: 12148956
[129]	Tett, R. P., & Meyer, J. P. (1993). Job satisfaction, organizational commitment, turnover intention, and turnover: Path analyses based on meta‐analytic findings. Personnel Psychology, 46(2), 260-293.
[130]	Tonidandel, S., & Lebreton, J. M. (2015). RWA Web: A Free, Comprehensive, Web-Based, and User-Friendly Tool for Relative Weight Analyses. Journal of Business & Psychology, 30, 207-216.
[131]	Triandis, H. C. (1989). The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts. Psychological Review, 96(3), 506-520.
[132]	van Dijk, H., Shantz, A., & Alfes, K. (2019). Welcome to the bright side: Why, how, and when overqualification enhances performance. Human Resource Management Review, 30(2), S1053482219301792.
[133]	van Hooff, M. L. M., & van Hooft, E. A. J. (2014). Boredom at work: Proximal and distal consequences of affective work-related boredom. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 19(3), 348-359.
[134]	van Tilburg, W. A. P., & Igou, E. R. (2012). On boredom: Lack of challenge and meaning as distinct boredom experiences. Motivation & Emotion, 36, 181-194.
[135]	Viswesvaran, C., & Ones, D. S. (2010). Theory testing: Combining psychometric meta-analysis and Structural Equations Modeling. Personnel Psychology, 48(4), 865-885.
[136]	Vodanovich, S. J. (2003). On the possible benefits of boredom: A neglected area in personality research. Psychology and Education, 40(3-4), 28-33.
[137]	Walker, I., & Pettigrew, T. F. (2011). Relative deprivation theory: An overview and conceptual critique. British Journal of Social Psychology, 23(4), 301-310.
[138]	Wang, C.(2018). How employees perceived overqualification related to creativity? Roles of anger, creative self-efficacy and regulatory focus. R&D Management, 30, 92-103.
[139]	Wang, C.(2019). Study of relationship between employee overqualification and innovation behavior: A perspective of social cognitive theory. Science & Technology and Economy, 32, 65-69.
[140]	Wang, Z., Sun, J., & Zhang, R. (2012). Effect of leader core self-evaluation on follower organizational citizenship behavior: The role of ethical leadership and collectivistic orientation. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 44(9), 1231-1243.
[141]	Waterman, A. S. (1984). The psychology of individualism. New York: Praeger.
[142]	Wiener, Y.(1982). Commitment in organizations: A normative view. Academy of Management Review, 7(3), 418-428.
[143]	Workman, J. E., & Studak, C. M. (2005). Relationships among fashion consumer groups, locus of control, boredom proneness, boredom coping and intrinsic enjoyment. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 31(1), 66-75.
[144]	Xu, J., Ren, X., & Su, H. (2016). The influencing factors of individualism/collectivism: A perspective of ecology. Advances in Psychological Science, 24(8), 1309-1318.
[145]	Yang, J., & Diefendorff, J. M. (2009). The relations of daily counterproductive workplace behavior with emotions, situational antecedents, and personality moderators: A diary study in Hong Kong. Personnel Psychology, 62(2), 259-295.
[146]	Yang, W., Guan, Y., Lai, X., She, Z., & Lockwood, A. J. (2015). Career adaptability and perceived overqualification: Testing a dual-path model among Chinese human resource management professionals. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 90,154-162.
[147]	Yeow, J. B., & Martin, R. (2013). The role of self-regulation in developing leaders: A longitudinal field experiment. Leadership Quarterly, 24(5), 625-637.
[148]	Yoo, B., Donthu, N., & Lenartowicz, T. (2011). Measuring Hofstede’s five dimensions of cultural values at the individual level: Development and validation of CVSCALE. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 23 (3-4), 193-210.
[149]	Zhang, M. J., Law, K. S., & Lin, B. (2016). You think you are big fish in a small pond? Perceived overqualification, goal orientations, and proactivity at work. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 37 (1), 61-84.
[150]	Zhang, Y., Liu, H., Wang, X., & Qing, P. (2018). The impact of challenge stress and hindrance stress on employee creativity: The mediating role of self-efficacy and the moderating role of justice. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 50(4), 450-461.
[151]	Zheng, T. (2017). A literature review on knowledge sharing. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 05, 51-58.
[152]	Zhou, J., & George, J. M. (2001). When job dissatisfaction leads to creativity: Encouraging the expression of voice. Academy of Management Journal, 44(4), 682-696.
[153]	Zvonkovic, A. M. (1988). Underemployment: Individual and marital adjustment to income loss. Lifestyles: Family and Economic Issues, 9, 161-178.

Dependent variable	K	N	$\bar{r}$	$\bar{\rho}$	SD	% Var	95% CI	80% CV	Nfs-0.05	5K+10
Negative emotions	12	4874	0.39	0.43	0.16	6.72	[0.34, 0.53]	[0.23, 0.64]	3507	70
Anger	9	3261	0.30	0.34	0.13	12.21	[0.24, 0.44]	[0.17, 0.51]	963	55
Boredom	4	1911	0.50	0.56	0.11	7.57	[0.38, 0.74]	[0.38, 0.74]	788	30
Positive self-concepts	24	7393	0.03	0.05	0.36	2.54	[-0.11, 0.20]	[-0.42, 0.51]	1058	130
General self-efficacy	5	1938	-0.01	0.00	0.44	1.31	[-0.55, 0.56]	[-0.67, 0.68]	95	35
Specific self-efficacy	13	3698	0.24	0.29	0.18	9.01	[0.18, 0.40]	[0.06, 0.52]	1871	75
General Self-esteem	2	697	-0.16	-0.17	0.24	4.77	[-2.31, 1.98]	[-0.88, 0.55]	5	20
OBSE	6	1856	-0.28	-0.32	0.09	34.94	[-0.41, -0.23]	[-0.43, -0.22]	311	40
Performance
Negative extra-role behavior	30	9436	0.27	0.31	0.21	6.11	[0.24, 0.39]	[0.05, 0.57]	38672	160
CWB	21	6420	0.19	0.22	0.17	10.47	[0.15, 0.30]	[0.01, 0.43]	7626	115
Turnover	12	4127	0.36	0.40	0.23	4.04	[0.26, 0.54]	[0.10, 0.70]	11910	70
Positive extra-role behavior	65	23932	-0.05	-0.06	0.27	3.65	[-0.12, 0.01]	[-0.40, 0.29]	766	335
Creativity	21	6738	0.04	0.06	0.34	2.71	[-0.10, 0.21]	[-0.38, 0.50]	17	115
Job crafting	10	6734	-0.10	-0.12	0.19	4.14	[-0.25, 0.01]	[-0.37, 0.13]	802	60
Voice	10	3391	-0.04	-0.03	0.38	2.03	[-0.30, 0.24]	[-0.55, 0.49]	173	60
Proactive behavior	8	2633	-0.05	-0.06	0.16	11.23	[-0.20, 0.08]	[-0.28, 0.16]	29	50
Knowledge sharing	8	2510	0.01	0.02	0.27	4.23	[-0.21, 0.25]	[-0.36, 0.40]	7	50
OCB	16	4874	-0.1	-0.12	0.20	8.25	[-0.23, -0.02]	[-0.38, 0.13]	216	90
Task performance	17	5109	0.03	0.03	0.15	14.94	[-0.04, 0.11]	[-0.15, 0.22]	156	95

Dependent variable	K	N	$\bar{r}$	$\bar{\rho}$	SD	% Var	95% CI	80% CV	Nfs-0.05	5K+10
Negative emotions	12	4874	0.39	0.43	0.16	6.72	[0.34, 0.53]	[0.23, 0.64]	3507	70
Anger	9	3261	0.30	0.34	0.13	12.21	[0.24, 0.44]	[0.17, 0.51]	963	55
Boredom	4	1911	0.50	0.56	0.11	7.57	[0.38, 0.74]	[0.38, 0.74]	788	30
Positive self-concepts	24	7393	0.03	0.05	0.36	2.54	[-0.11, 0.20]	[-0.42, 0.51]	1058	130
General self-efficacy	5	1938	-0.01	0.00	0.44	1.31	[-0.55, 0.56]	[-0.67, 0.68]	95	35
Specific self-efficacy	13	3698	0.24	0.29	0.18	9.01	[0.18, 0.40]	[0.06, 0.52]	1871	75
General Self-esteem	2	697	-0.16	-0.17	0.24	4.77	[-2.31, 1.98]	[-0.88, 0.55]	5	20
OBSE	6	1856	-0.28	-0.32	0.09	34.94	[-0.41, -0.23]	[-0.43, -0.22]	311	40
Performance
Negative extra-role behavior	30	9436	0.27	0.31	0.21	6.11	[0.24, 0.39]	[0.05, 0.57]	38672	160
CWB	21	6420	0.19	0.22	0.17	10.47	[0.15, 0.30]	[0.01, 0.43]	7626	115
Turnover	12	4127	0.36	0.40	0.23	4.04	[0.26, 0.54]	[0.10, 0.70]	11910	70
Positive extra-role behavior	65	23932	-0.05	-0.06	0.27	3.65	[-0.12, 0.01]	[-0.40, 0.29]	766	335
Creativity	21	6738	0.04	0.06	0.34	2.71	[-0.10, 0.21]	[-0.38, 0.50]	17	115
Job crafting	10	6734	-0.10	-0.12	0.19	4.14	[-0.25, 0.01]	[-0.37, 0.13]	802	60
Voice	10	3391	-0.04	-0.03	0.38	2.03	[-0.30, 0.24]	[-0.55, 0.49]	173	60
Proactive behavior	8	2633	-0.05	-0.06	0.16	11.23	[-0.20, 0.08]	[-0.28, 0.16]	29	50
Knowledge sharing	8	2510	0.01	0.02	0.27	4.23	[-0.21, 0.25]	[-0.36, 0.40]	7	50
OCB	16	4874	-0.1	-0.12	0.20	8.25	[-0.23, -0.02]	[-0.38, 0.13]	216	90
Task performance	17	5109	0.03	0.03	0.15	14.94	[-0.04, 0.11]	[-0.15, 0.22]	156	95

Variable	1	2	3	4	5
1. POQ
2. Negative emotions
$(\bar{r}, \bar{\rho})$	(0.39, 0.43)
(K, N)	(12, 4874)
95% CI	[0.34, 0.53]
80%CV	[0.23, 0.64]
3. Positive self-concepts
$(\bar{r}, \bar{\rho})$	(0.03, 0.05)	(-0.02, -0.02)
(K, N)	(24, 7393)	(12, 5392)
95% CI	[-0.11, 0.20]	[-0.14, 0.10]
80%CV	[-0.42, 0.51]	[-0.27, 0.23]
4. Negative extra-role behaviors
$(\bar{r}, \bar{\rho})$	(0.27, 0.31)	(0.30, 0.34)	(-0.26, -0.27)
(K, N)	(30, 9436)	(18, 11036)	(11, 12503)
95% CI	[0.24, 0.39]	[0.29, 0.40]	[-0.35, -0.19]
80%CV	[0.05, 0.57]	[0.21, 0.48]	[-0.43, -0.12]
5. Positive extra-role behaviors
$(\bar{r}, \bar{\rho})$	(-0.05, -0.06)	(-0.08, -0.10)	(0.37, 0.40)	(-0.07, -0.06)
(K, N)	(65, 23932)	(19, 8312)	(92, 48381)	(14, 5471)
95% CI	[-0.12, 0.01]	[-0.27, 0.07]	[0.36, 0.44]	[-0.20, 0.07]
80%CV	[-0.40, 0.29]	[-0.56, 0.36]	[0.17, 0.64]	[-0.37, 0.24]
6. Task performance
$(\bar{r}, \bar{\rho})$	(0.03, 0.03)	(-0.29, -0.29)	(0.18, 0.18)	(-0.09, -0.10)	(0.51, 0.57)
(K, N)	(17, 5109)	(35, 19052)	(10, 12365)	(4, 1607)	(28, 7660)
95% CI	[-0.04, 0.11]	[-0.33, -0.25]	[0.13, 0.23]	[-0.39, 0.19]	[0.51, 0.63]
80%CV	[-0.15, 0.22]	[-0.43, -0.15]	[0.09, 0.27]	[-0.39, 0.19]	[0.36, 0.78]

Variable	1	2	3	4	5
1. POQ
2. Negative emotions
$(\bar{r}, \bar{\rho})$	(0.39, 0.43)
(K, N)	(12, 4874)
95% CI	[0.34, 0.53]
80%CV	[0.23, 0.64]
3. Positive self-concepts
$(\bar{r}, \bar{\rho})$	(0.03, 0.05)	(-0.02, -0.02)
(K, N)	(24, 7393)	(12, 5392)
95% CI	[-0.11, 0.20]	[-0.14, 0.10]
80%CV	[-0.42, 0.51]	[-0.27, 0.23]
4. Negative extra-role behaviors
$(\bar{r}, \bar{\rho})$	(0.27, 0.31)	(0.30, 0.34)	(-0.26, -0.27)
(K, N)	(30, 9436)	(18, 11036)	(11, 12503)
95% CI	[0.24, 0.39]	[0.29, 0.40]	[-0.35, -0.19]
80%CV	[0.05, 0.57]	[0.21, 0.48]	[-0.43, -0.12]
5. Positive extra-role behaviors
$(\bar{r}, \bar{\rho})$	(-0.05, -0.06)	(-0.08, -0.10)	(0.37, 0.40)	(-0.07, -0.06)
(K, N)	(65, 23932)	(19, 8312)	(92, 48381)	(14, 5471)
95% CI	[-0.12, 0.01]	[-0.27, 0.07]	[0.36, 0.44]	[-0.20, 0.07]
80%CV	[-0.40, 0.29]	[-0.56, 0.36]	[0.17, 0.64]	[-0.37, 0.24]
6. Task performance
$(\bar{r}, \bar{\rho})$	(0.03, 0.03)	(-0.29, -0.29)	(0.18, 0.18)	(-0.09, -0.10)	(0.51, 0.57)
(K, N)	(17, 5109)	(35, 19052)	(10, 12365)	(4, 1607)	(28, 7660)
95% CI	[-0.04, 0.11]	[-0.33, -0.25]	[0.13, 0.23]	[-0.39, 0.19]	[0.51, 0.63]
80%CV	[-0.15, 0.22]	[-0.43, -0.15]	[0.09, 0.27]	[-0.39, 0.19]	[0.36, 0.78]

Types of effects and paths	Calculation methods	All data		Data from the high collectivistic context		Data from the low collectivistic context
Types of effects and paths	Calculation methods	β	95% CI	β	95% CI	β	95% CI
The indirect effects of emotions
POQ→NE→NB	Path _POQ→NE ×Path _NE→NB	0.12	[0.11, 0.13]	0.11	[0.09, 0.13]	0.15	[0.13, 0.18]
POQ→NE→PB	Path _POQ→NE ×Path _NE→PB	-0.14	[-0.16, -0.12]	-0.09	[-0.13, -0.07]	-0.09	[-0.13, -0.05]
POQ→NE→JP	Path _POQ→NE ×Path _NE→JP	-0.29	[-0.31, -0.27]	-0.11	[-0.14, -0.08]	-0.35	[-0.4, -0.31]
The indirect effects of cognitions
POQ→PS→NB	Path _POQ→PS ×Path _PS→NB	-0.01	[-0.02, -0.01]	-0.04	[-0.07, -0.01]	0.06	[0.04, 0.07]
POQ→PS→PB	Path _POQ→PS ×Path _PS→PB	0.03	[0.01, 0.05]	0.06	[0.02, 0.11]	-0.10	[-0.13, -0.08]
POQ→PS→JP	Path _POQ→PS ×Path _PS→JP	0.02	[0.01, 0.03]	0.05	[0.02, 0.09]	-0.11	[-0.14, -0.09]
The diffences between the indirect effects of emotions and the indirect effects of cognitions
POQ→NE→NB - POQ→PS→NB	Path _POQ→NE ×Path _NE→NB- Path _POQ→PS ×Path _PS→NB	0.13	[0.12, 0.15]	0.15	[0.11, 0.18]	0.09	[0.06, 0.12]
POQ→NE→PB - POQ→PS→PB	Path _POQ→NE ×Path _NE→PB- Path _POQ→PS ×Path _PS→PB	-0.17	[-0.19, -0.15]	-0.16	[-0.21, -0.11]	0.02	[-0.03, 0.06]
POQ→NE→JP - POQ→PS→JP	Path _POQ→NE ×Path _NE→JP- Path _POQ→PS ×Path _PS→JP	-0.31	[-0.33, -0.29]	-0.16	[-0.2, -0.11]	-0.24	[-0.29, -0.19]
总效应
POQ→NB + POQ→NE→NB + POQ→PS→NB	Path _POQ→NB + Path _POQ→NE ×Path _NE→NB + Path _POQ→PS ×Path _PS→NB	0.32	[0.30, 0.34]	0.32	[0.27, 0.37]	0.31	[0.27, 0.35]
POQ→PB + POQ→NE→PB + POQ→PS→PB	Path _POQ→PB + Path _POQ→NE ×Path _NE→PB + Path _POQ→PS ×Path _PS→PB	-0.07	[-0.10, -0.03]	-0.02	[-0.08, 0.04]	-0.23	[-0.28, -0.17]
POQ→JP + POQ→NE→JP + POQ→PS→JP	Path _POQ→JP + Path _POQ→NE ×Path _NE→JP + Path _POQ→PS ×Path _PS→JP	0.02	[-0.01, 0.05]	0.06	[-0.01, 0.13]	-0.05	[-0.11, 0.00]